Definition of Marketing Research

The first thing that an organization must concentrate upon when going into operations is to analyze the current situation of the environment that it is a part of. The organization must know of the current happenings in the environment and the kind of competitors that it is directly affected by and indirectly affected by as well. All these factors must be analyzed clearly and thoroughly so that the organization can decide its strategies and run them effectively. In order to do so, the organization must use marketing research as its tool because it is known to be extremely useful and it never provides false results. Through research, the organization can know what the competitors are planning to do and what their line of action is. Marketing research can be defined as â€Å"Market research is broader in scope and examines all aspects of a business environment. It asks questions about competitors, market structure, government regulations, economic trends, technological advances, and numerous other factors that make up the business environment.† (Wikipedia, 2006) Techniques used for Marketing Research Any organization can use marketing research as one of its strongest tools for being competent in a market. It is known to be the research and development area that has allowed the organization to grow and become stronger in the competitive environment. The organization must concentrate on this aspect to grow in any environment. There are several techniques that can be used for marketing research and will be explained below. The broader categorization of marketing research is out into four topics as: 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Qualitative Research 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Quantitative Research 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Observational Research 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Experimental Research (Wikipedia, 2006) The techniques within these topics are surveys, focus groups, observations, personal interviews and field trials. Surveys can be defined as have a list of questions pertaining to the topic of the research and then having the target market, selected for the research, to fill out and answer these questions. The survey allows the organization to have an easy statistical overview of the data representing the market so that the organization can understand what features of the product must be concentrated upon to optimize. There are various different kinds of surveys such as telephone surveys, mail surveys and even in person surveys which means that an individual is asked these questions so that the organization can understand the individual’s requirements and satisfaction from the product or service that the organization is willing to offer. Focus groups are conducted with a group of participants chosen from the target market of the research to understand what emotions and important points can be derived from the discussion of these participants with one another. The organization can also use personal interviews where the same problems could be discussed face to face rather than having a group of people. In this way, only the idea and the perception of that individual can be understood. The observational techniques depend upon the non verbal communication of the target market. There could be people from the organization who could be sitting at certain areas where the competitor’s products are sold and then could observe as to how the people look into the products and what their requirements are or specifications of the product. There could be the possibility that a customer may need a certain color that was demanded by many other customers and many other features. The organization must also look into the field trials which is really the experimental portion of the research. The organization would first collect all the data from the internet and other sources and then analyze the data in order to understand how the product is to be changed in order that the customers needs from the research results can be reached. Once the product is created, it must first be tested in an environment to see whether the product has any flaws in them or not. The organization can then make required changes in the product and then eventually launch their product in the market. This is the entire process of research that is usually followed by many organizations. However, there is a greater participation of internet in this process because of the availability of data at all times. Internet and Its Usefulness in Marketing Research Internet is known to be a very strong tool for research because internet holds all the information that can be available for an individual. The internet can provide laws and regulations imposed by governments on different sectors of a country or the research results of various other companies and individuals who also tried to understand the market. All this information can be sued by an individual or company as secondary data as well as a support for their primary research. A company known as Engro Chemicals Pakistan Limited has grown to be a multinational and is continuing to grow globally. The main aim of this company was to allow the farmers to have higher yield with better products to embed in the soil. Looking at the environmental aspect of agriculture and using the laws and regulations of the government imposed upon agriculture, Engro came up with new technologies along with products to help the farmers grow. The company went through a number of websites and internet sources to understand the requirements of farmers all over the world and got hold of secondary data to understand the gaps within the agricultural sector globally. The company sort out the products that it can produce and then customized them for its market. This provided the company with a competitive edge over all other locally based companies that are still struggling to gain the market. Bibliography 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   All Business. (2006). Market Research Techniques. Retrieved on November 19, 2006 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Asia Market Research. (2002). Research Techniques. Retrieved on November 19, 2006 from: http://www.asiamarketresearch.com/news/cat_research_techniques.htm 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Engro Chemicals Pakistan Limited. Retrieved on November 19, 2006 from: www.engro.com 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Infospan, Inc. Qualitative and Quantitative Techniques. Retrieved on November 19, 2006 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Wikipedia. (2006). Marketing Research. Retrieved on November 19, 2006 from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing_research      

The Differences Between Parliamentary & Presidential System

Differences between Parliamentary system and Presidential system [Judiciary] In relating both systems, parliamentary and presidential systems are currently using different judiciary system to enforce law in society. Before entering judiciary segment, it is essential to understand the definition of judiciary where it can be noted that:- â€Å"†¦Judiciary is commonly considered the third branch of government. It stabilizes the political system by solving disputes involving the country’s law†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Barrington, 2010, p. 280) â€Å"†¦It is emphatically the province and duty of the judicial department to say what the law is†¦Ã¢â‚¬  John Marshall cited in (Woll, 1992, p. 51) From this definition above, the judiciary simply implies the body or branch that play important role in interpretation of the law and solving matters relating to legal issue. Both Parliamentary and Presidential system does also exhibit Judiciary bodies but portrays different function to one another where it can be noted that:- In United Kingdom: – â€Å"†¦Their jurisdiction over civil cases extended to the United Kingdom as a whole but only for England, Wales and Northern Island in criminal†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Barrington, 2010, p. 85) Meaning to say that â€Å"Law of Lords† have jurisdiction in for the whole states in United Kingdom, but in England, Wales, and Northern Island the Law of Lord are function in decision making of criminal cases. This different with United States of America which is â€Å"†¦The doctrine of separation of power operates on two levels. On the national level, the authority of the federal government is divided among three distinct competitive and mutually involved branches. On another level, power is split between national and state government†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Woll, 1992, p. 255)From the quotation above show that separations of power have two levels, for the first level is in the federal government have three branches whic h are Legislature, Judiciary and Executive that different with each other but it actually involved each other to ensure that the government run smoothly. Another difference between these two countries is the Constitution. In United Kingdom constitutional are unwritten that is different with United States of America that have written Constitution from the beginning of United State are founded. Law in United States of America are recorded.In United Kingdom the House of Lords are consisting twelve â€Å"Lords of Appeal in Ordinary† that also called â€Å"Law of Lords†. In United Kingdom are applying the independence of judiciary which is needed to be:- United Kingdom:- â€Å"†¦insulated from scrutiny, general accountability for their role or properly made public criticisms of conduct inside or outside the court room†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (Lords, 2007, p. 13) Contra with United States of America that:- â€Å"Although the states were no longer equal to the central governmen t, they still retained a fair amount of sovereignty.As long as they did not conflict with the Constitution of Federal laws, state laws were supreme within each state, that is, within its own domain†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Woll, 1992, p. 257) Meaning to say that judiciary in United Kingdom are isolated from the Executive and Parliament in way to protected it from be review and need to criticise in proper way wherever outside or inside the courts room. In United Kingdom legal system are based on three sources that are Case Law, Legislation and Statutory of Laws (Act of Parliament).In the other hand United States of America there are Federalism and the Judiciary. Judiciary in State and National have issue on sovereignty and have been settling by Civil War which is bringing the inequalities to the states then central government. From the statement above can show that the judiciary part in United States of America which is both state and federal government have a same sovereignty in this country as long as the law are not contradict with Constitution of Federal law.This is different with United Kingdom that used the Fusion of power which is all branch of government are mixed up each other because in United Kingdom are using the parliamentary system. Administration of law in United Kingdom is different with United States of America, this can shown in:- â€Å"†¦The United Kingdom does not have a single body of law applicable throughout the kingdom. Scotland has it is own distinctive system and courts, and in Northern Ireland certain spheres of law differ in substance from those operating in England and Wales.The main civil courts in England and Wales are: †¢ Magistrates' Courts †¢ County Courts for small cases and †¢The High Court, which is divided into †¢ The Chancery Division, †¢ The Family Division, and †¢ The Queen's Bench Division (including the maritime and commercial courts), for the more important cases†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (The United Kin gdom Judicial System) But in United States of America the courts that operating are:- â€Å"†¦Supreme Courts consisted of six justices, who rode the circuit as judges of the Courts of Appeals.The courts was reduced to five members at one time and expended to ten at another. Since 1869, The Supreme Courts has consistently had nine members. And since 1891, the justices have no had to serve on courts of appeal, although each justice has some responsibilities with at least one appeals court†¦ † (Woll, 1992, p. 268) The differences are can be shown when comparing the administration on judiciary branch. In United States of America the judiciary branches are administered by congress because:- â€Å"†¦Generally, Congress determines the jurisdiction of the federal courts.In some cases, however — such as in the example of a dispute between two or more U. S. states — the Constitution grants the Supreme Court original jurisdiction, an authority that cannot b e stripped by Congress†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Judicial Branch) This showed us that the jurisdiction branches are dependable on congress to make an issue or solving problem regarding law for United States of America. Conclusion Conclusion that can be made from both of the countries in judiciary system are the system are totally different each other.The differences can be seen on the jurisdiction of judiciary branch, function of judiciary branch in both system that is parliamentary system and presidential system, type of Constitution, and administration of judiciary branch in United Kingdom and United State of America. The judiciary branch in both systems is totally different function in making or interprets law, because there are no similarities in judiciary for both system and countries. The comparison that been made useful to studying the differences roles of judiciary in different system of government and countries.

Affirmative Action Essays - Social Inequality, Free Essays

Affirmative Action The state shall not discriminate, or grant preferential treatment to any individual or group on the basis of race, sex, color, ethnicity, or national origin in the operation of public employment, public education, or public contracting. The previous statement is the unedited text of the operative part of Proposition 209, the California Civil Rights Initiative (CCRI), that passed November fifth by a percentage of 54 to 46. Though the initiative does not actually mention affirmative action, Californians feel affirmative action may be coming to an end. Will the decision of Proposition 209 have a great impact on colleges and universities? We will soon find out. We do know that affirmative action in colleges and universities has a long history of controversy sparked by the 1978 Bakke case and seems to be far from over with the recent vote on proposition 209. The Supreme Courts 1978 decision in the Regents of the University of California v. Bakke has been the basis for most college affirmative action programs. The case involved a white man, Allen Bakke, who applied for admission to, and was rejected by California University at Davis Medical School in 1973 and 1974. The university had an affirmative action program to accept sixteen Black, Hispanic, and Asian students for every 100 entering. Allen Bakke objected when he found out that he had been turned down while minorities students with lower college grades and MCAT scores had been admitted under the universitys affirmative action program. The court then had been divided between four justices in favor of admitting Bakke on the basis that the quota affirmative Maloney 2 action plan had violated Title Four of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, four Justices against admitting Bakke, and Justice Powell, the swing vote. Justice Powell declared that Allen Bakke would be admitted to the medical school because the University of Californias affirmative action plan had violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In Justice Powells opinion, the Fourteenth Amendment must be interpreted to protect everyone (McWhirter). The Bakke decision has sparked many anti-affirmative action movements, the latest being Proposition 209. Backing the California Civil Rights Initiative, proponents feel it is time to end race and sex-based quotas, preferences and set-asides now governing state employment, contracts and education. Launching a two million dollar television campaign to support the ballot measure, Robert Dole and the Republican Party made proposition 209 the centerpiece in their push for Californias 54 electoral votes (Lesher). Bob Dole states, If affirmative action means quotas, set- asides and other preferences that favor individuals simply because they happen to belong to certain groups, thats were I draw the line (qtd. in What Theyre Saying About Quotas and the California Civil Rights Initiative). Agreeing with Dole, Governor Pete Wilson states that Mandating and practicing inequality cannot bring equality (qtd. in What Theyre Saying About Quotas and the California Civil Rights ! Initiative). Another defender of proposition 209 and affirmative action is House Speaker Newt Gingrich. In a interview with Gingrich, he boldly states that people who want some kind of quota based on racial background should be forced to debate in public their version of America. I would make clear that I oppose Maloney 3 quotas explicitly because I favor an integrated America (qtd. in What Theyre Saying About Quotas and the California Civil Rights Initiative). United States Senator, Phil Gramm, also opposes affirmative action resolutely declaring that if I become President, quotas and set-asides are finished in America (qtd. in What Theyre Saying About Quotas and the California Civil Rights Initiative). Opposing the measure, California college students and other affirmative action supporters protest to sustain variety and diversity. The first incident occurred when 500 students from University of California Berkeley met on Sprous Hall steps, the evening after the election and seized the Campanile clock tower. Some students chained themselves inside. The same day as the as the Berkeley incident, 300 students from the University of California Santa Cruz surrounded and picketed the Student Service Building, effectively closing the financial aid and registrars office. Police made no arrests. On November seventh, 100 students from San Francisco State caused a commotion by blocking 19th Avenue, a main thoroughfare (WALLACE and MARCUM ).

Cross-calture management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Cross-calture management - Essay Example Researchers studying the success of cultural diversity programs have identified models that can be implemented into organizational environments. Having support for of senior management for diversity programs is identified as a major theme among most of the program models (Matton & Hernandez, 2004; Jayne & Dipboye 2004). This paper will examine the background of diversity in organizations, benefits of workplace diversity, challenges of diversity, popular diversity management models, the relevant research related to the importance of having support of senior management for diversity programs, and the individuals responsible for implementing diversity programs, that is, the diversity practitioner. Overview Workplace Diversity and its Importance Diversity can be defined as, "a mix of people of different socially relevant group identities working or living together in a defined social system" (Cox & Beale, 1997, p.13). Healthy workplace diversity can provide an organization with the tools to improve problem solving, enhance marketing, be more creative and flexible, and ultimately improve productivity and "the bottom line" (Thomas, 2006; Cox, 1994). While a company may recruit in order to create a climate of diversity, it can simultaneously open the door to truly hiring the best available talent in the global market instead of another "company man." Diversity promotes a multiplicity of viewpoints, thus creating the potential to generate more creative ideas and stimulate consideration of non  ­obvious alternatives (Kyriakidou, 2009). Further, diverse groups bring a broader and richer base of experience. This dynamic tends to create a higher level of critical analysis and a lower probability of "group think" (Cox, 1994). For example, studies show that women tend to be more tolerant of ambiguity than men. As a result, they tend to excel in completing tasks that are cognitively complex and/or ambiguous. Individuals with bilingual capabilities are another group that dem onstrates a great capacity for flexibility. Thus, workgroups that incorporate individuals with these characteristics are likely to demonstrate greater group cognitive flexibility (Cox, 1994). With the minority population growing, organizations are finding the need to adapt products, advertising and services to appeal to diverse interests. Studies show that members of minority cultural groups are more likely to give patronage to representatives of their own cultural group (Cox, 1994). Thus, organizations find the need to have their workforce mirror, at least in part, their clientele. In the for-profit sector, it has been seen that the evolving demographics in the United States have had a significant impact on the manner in which products currently need to be marketed in order to maintain or increase market shares. For example, Cox (1994) notes two examples of cosmetic companies, Avon and Maybelline, changing either their product or transferring the management of an otherwise unprofit able market of minorities, to people of color. Under different management these companies have adapted their products using shades that are more palatable to people of color and have reflected these changes in their advertisement. The results have been very positive and profitable for these companies in a previously

Implications of Money Transfer Companies on the Global Economy Essay

Implications of Money Transfer Companies on the Global Economy - Essay Example It is in line to this argument that there has been needing to increase the access to international markets, all with the aim of ensuring that the business environments have been strengthened; thus, an increase in the access to international markets through an improvement in the access to funds. This has, in turn, opened up trade and investment in various areas of the globe (Geiersbach, 2010). This has been boosted by the developing international money transfer services that play a huge role in the present day business market. It is through these services that a lot of individuals have managed to send money faster and with a lot of ease despite their distance. With this in mind, it is evident that the money transfer business has contributed greatly to the global economy. This essay will attempt to assess the implications of the money transfer business on the economy of the globe in general. The essay shall focus on aspects such as Globalization, post-colonial theory, European Union, p rotectionism, corporate social responsibility and cross-cultural management in an attempt to understand the underlying issues on the same theme. 2.0. Money transfer companies and the global economy 2.1. ... Economic growth, on the other hand, can only be attested with an increase in the income of individuals, which alternatively helps in a reduction of the poverty levels in a country. In the developing countries, there is clear evidence that these countries can barely support their economies; thus, stagnant economic growth (Department for International Development  &  HM Treasury, 2013). Good examples of the challenges in these countries include the absence of institutions that support economic growth, poor infrastructure, lack of access to financial services amongst others (Department for International Development  &  HM Treasury, 2013). In such a scenario, individuals are less likely to borrow funds as well as invest. The Department for International Development  &  HM Treasury (2013) therefore recommends that the governments in these developing countries strengthen their business ties by enabling their members to join the international markets; thus, access to financial s ervices by its members. Opening up its trade links would alternatively ensure that such countries have access to international money transfer programs that sustain their trade links with other economic opportunities. International money transfers are more convenient and allow people to send money throughout the world in a faster way. These services enjoy an enrolment of numerous agents around the globe that require their services, including the third world countries that are able to access the funds they need to survive in the tough economic times.

Emotioonal intelligence Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Emotioonal intelligence - Assignment Example There is a great deal of education about social and emotional effectiveness but many other factors and traits of personality are better predictors of success; skills, dispositions, and tendencies. It is thought possible to increase emotional knowledge and improve social and emotional functioning and because of the popularity of the thought many have sought to do though it does not necessarily make a vast difference in one’s life and the other factors are still thought more important in the overall patterns of one’s life. Emotional knowledge needs much more research before it can conclusively be depended on to change or enhance one’s patterns of success or interpersonal effectiveness. Jack Mayer believes that you cannot teach emotional intelligence and that it must instead be developed. Defining intelligence can sometimes present a problem as there are many different ways in which it can be defines; ability, skills, potential and capability are just a few of the possible definitions that are usually synonymous with

Molly Spotted Elk Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Molly Spotted Elk - Research Paper Example It is therefore believed that Molly Spotted Elk’s life was â€Å"a trail of tears† or a life of sadness and pain. Childhood Molly Spotted Elk was always believed as a â€Å"remarkable person in any light†3 just like what a former director of the Penobscot Nation Museum thought of her. Moreover, the same director thought of her life as â€Å"one of the most amazing unknown lives of any modern American woman,†4 despite the fact that she must have lived a sad life made up of several challenges. The struggle of Molly Spotted Elk must have begun early in childhood. Molly was born on Indian Island, Maine on November 17, 1903 as Mary Alice. Her mother, Philomena Solis Nelson, was a Maliseet Indian and one of the most prominent basket makers of her day. On the other hand, her father, Horace Nelson, was then a future governor of the Penobscot Nation, and was the first member of that Indian nation to go to Dartmouth College. Moreover, Molly’s grandfather had once been a chief of the Maliseet tribe in Canada5. As a child, Molly was different from her seven younger brothers and sisters for she took a great interest in learning traditional dances when she was only 13 years old. She did this in order to financially support her family6. It could have therefore been that at this time, Molly must suffered greatly from having to work for her family at such a young age. Moreover, Molly’s suffering was also evident when she scrubbed floors at night in order to be able to study anthropology during the day. She did this after entering the University of Pennsylvania without having enough money to pay for her tuition7. Moreover, she struggled to make both ends meet for her and for her family as well because she even had to send money to her family from her scrubbing work aside from having to pay for her tuition fee. In fact, â€Å"[Molly] was hungry and she needed to [perform to survive]†8 just like all Penobscot people, who themselves had to work hard and struggle. This must have been difficult for Molly herself considering the fact that she was not only a working student but also that she was a Native American Indian. Career as a Dancer When Molly was a dancer for the vaudeville troupe of the famous rodeo named Tex, she was a dancing sensation everywhere she went. However, although she was, as her family remembered, â€Å"a happy and completely free spirit†9, Molly danced even â€Å"topless†10. This must have been exciting even for her but it does not change the fact that a woman who dances topless does not care much about her image and reputation. Molly must have therefore suffered much at this point in her life. Career as an Actress In 1928, Molly Spotted Elk’s friendship with a Hollywood producer made her star in â€Å"The Silent Enemy,† one of Paramount Pictures’ last silent movies. Molly played the role of Neewa, the daughter of the tribal chief. In the movie, she was amon g the Ojibwa Indians who struggled against hunger, which was the silent enemy of the Indian people before the coming of the white man. The problem was that Molly had to endure the harshness and cold of the Canadian weather in the process. To make matters worse, the movie was not a success at all11. Life in Europe After the failure of â€Å"The Silent Enemy,† Molly went to Europe briefly to dance in front of the Old World Royalty, which included

Recommendations as to the effective use of the millennial generation Research Paper

Recommendations as to the effective use of the millennial generation at Smith Telecommunications Incorporated (STI) - Research Paper Example In relation to the study the company which has been selected is Smith Telecommunications Incorporated (STI) that is constituted by people who for belonging to different age groups happen to reflect different cultural settings in regards to rendering their operations for the company. The multi-generation workforce of the company is constituted by people belonging to the group of Baby Boomers, Generation X and Millennial. Here, the human resources management team is required to manage effectively the workplace groups through the enhanced understanding of the qualities and level of aspirations of each generation group. The management is thereby required to synergize the activities of the different groups such that it would help in enhancing the productivity of the enterprise. Further the human resource management in linked to the above objectives is required to not only recruit but sustain the productivity and skill sets of the people pertaining to the different age groups. In that the management is required to enhance its focus on understanding of the needs of the Baby Boomers population group of the company. The management should endeavour to harness the knowledge and experience potential of this group to rightly enhance the skills and productivity of the new team members. Similarly the management is required to help devise effective strategies to both effectively recruit and retain productive workforce in regards to the different age groups in the concern like Baby Boomers. ... urce management in linked to the above objectives is required to not only recruit but sustain the productivity and skill sets of the people pertaining to the different age groups. In that the management is required to enhance its focus on understanding of the needs of the Baby Boomers population group of the company. The management should endeavour to harness the knowledge and experience potential of this group to rightly enhance the skills and productivity of the new team members. Similarly the management is required to help devise effective strategies to both effectively recruit and retain productive workforce in regards to the different age groups in the concern like Baby Boomers. The Human Resources Management body of Smith Telecommunications Limited faces the problem in rightly managing the potential of the employees pertaining to different generational workforce and thereby to effectively recruit and sustain the labour pool so as to maximise the potential gained from them. The main scope of the project would be to bring about effective human resource management strategies aimed at enhancing the potential of the diverse work group in the concern divided along different age groups. In that the project should aim to understand the needs of the different groups and thereby to blend the activities of such so as to gain an all round productivity. Moreover the management is also required to focus on understanding the gender differences of the people at the time of recruiting and thereby to sustain the established productivity and skill sets in the concern. The project however suffers from some distinct set of limitations in that it focuses on management of diverse organisational culture based on generation gaps. However the other diverse parameters like race or

Why are informants necessary to effectively combat organized crime Essay

Why are informants necessary to effectively combat organized crime - Essay Example To gain this information, designated authorities have recourse to tried and tested methods. These methods include physical and technological surveillance, infiltration of the organization by undercover agents, and last, but not the least, the use of informants. Informants used against organized crime are usually members of these criminal organizations, who decide to talk to the authorities for a variety of personal and financial reasons. Critics have often criticized the use of informants: it is believed that most informants are unreliable because they work for selfish motives, either to gain revenge on their parent organization, or in search of incentives like money and exemption from charges and punishment. Since the whole process of using informants is confidential, critics fear the abuse of the system, whereby criminals go scot free despite heinous activities because of their cooperation with the authorities in netting criminal organizations. According to critics, informants tend to blur the lines between what is lawful and what is not. But despite these objections, there are reasons why authorities continue to use intelligence from informants, and we will now discuss why despite having other options like technical and physical surveillance and undercover operations, police and other authorities continue to use informants. Technological and physical surveillance is often unable to capture the entirety of the organization, as the members use coded communication. Moroever to initially establish surveillance especially in a suspects private space, the authorities must be able to obtain proof of criminal activity in the form of advance reliable intelligence. This is where the informants come in handy, because a reliable informer is able to provide a translation for the inner codes of a criminal organization, as well as supply tangible proof against a organized crime suspect to be brought under surveillance.

Media literacy Essay Example for Free

Media literacy Essay Media Education is the process of teaching and learning about media. [1] It is about developing young peoples critical and creative abilities when it comes to the media. Media education should not be confused with educational technology or with educational media. Surveys repeatedly show that, in most industrialized countries, children now spend more time watching television than they do in school, or also on any other activity apart from sleeping[2] Media Education has no fixed location, no clear ideology and no definitive recipients; it is subject to whims of a financial market bigger than itself. [1] Being able to understand the media enables people to analyze, evaluate, and create messages in a wide variety of mediums, genres, and forms. A person who is media literate is informed. There are many reasons why media studies are absent from the primary and secondary school curricula, including cuts in budgets and social services as well as over-packed schedules and expectations. Education for media literacy often uses an inquiry-based pedagogic model that encourages people to ask questions about what they watch, hear, and read. Media literacy education provides tools to help people critically analyze messages, offers opportunities for learners to broaden their experience of media, and helps them develop creative skills in making their own media messages. [3] Critical analysis can include identifying author, purpose and point of view, examining construction techniques and genres, examining patterns of media representation, and detecting propaganda, censorship, and bias in news and public affairs programming (and the reasons for these). Media literacy education may explore how structural features—such as media ownership, or its funding model[4] affect the information presented. Media literate people should be able to skillfully create and produce media messages, both to show understanding of the specific qualities of each medium, as well as to create independent media and participate as active citizens. Media literacy can be seen as contributing to an expanded conceptualization of literacy, treating mass media, popular culture and digital media as new types of texts that require analysis and evaluation. By transforming the  process of media consumption into an active and critical process, people gain greater awareness of the potential for misrepresentation and manipulation (especially through commercials and public relations techniques), and understand the role of mass media and participatory media in constructing views of reality. [5] Media literacy education is sometimes conceptualized as a way to address the negative dimensions of mass media, popular culture and digital media, including media violence, gender and racial stereotypes, the sexualization of children, and concerns about loss of privacy, cyberbullying and Internet predators. By building knowledge and competencies in using media and technology, media literacy education may provide a type of protection to children and young people by helping them make good choices in their media consumption habits, and patterns of usage. [6] Concepts of media education Media education can be in many ways. In general, media education has come to be defined in terms of conceptual understandings of the media. [1] Usually this means key concepts or key aspects. This approach does not specify particular objects of study and this enables media education to remain responsive to students interests and enthusiasms. David Buckingham has come up with four key concepts that provide a theoretical framework which can be applied to the whole range of contemporary media and to older media as well: Production, Language, Representation, and Audience. [1] These concepts are defined by David Buckingham as follows: Production Production involves the recognition that media texts are consciously made. [1] Some media texts are made by individuals working alone, just for themselves or their family and friends, but most are produced and distributed by groups of people often for commercial profit. This means recognizing the economic interests that are at stake in media production, and the ways in which profits are generated. More confident students in media education should be able to debate the implications of these developments in terms of national and cultural identities, and in terms of the range of social groups that are able to gain access to media. [1] Studying media production means looking at: Technologies: what technologies are used to produce and distribute media texts? Professional practices: Who makes media texts? The industry: Who owns the companies that buy and sell media and how do they make a profit? Connections between media: How do companies sell the same products across different media? Regulation: Who controls the production and distribution of media, and are there laws about this? Circulation and distribution: How do texts reach their audiences? Access and participation: Whose voices are heard in the media and whose are excluded? [1] Language Every medium has its own combination of languages that it uses to communicate meaning. For example, television uses verbal and written language as well as the languages of moving images and sound. Particular kinds of music or camera angles may be used to encourage certain emotions. When it comes to verbal language, making meaningful statements in media languages involves paradigmatic choices and syntagmatic combinations. [1] By analyzing these languages, one can come to a better understanding of how meanings are created. [1] Studying media languages means looking at: Meanings: How does media use different forms of language to convey ideas or meanings? Conventions: How do these uses of languages become familiar and generally accepted? Codes: How are the grammatical rules of media established and what happens when they are broken? Genres: How do these conventions and codes operate in different types of media contexts? Choices: What are the effects of choosing certain forms of language, such as a certain type of camera shot? Combinations: How is meaning conveyed through the combination or sequencing of images, sounds, or words? Technologies: How do technologies affect the meanings that can be created? [1] Representation The notion of representation is one of the first established principles of media education. The media offers viewers a facilitated outlook of the world and they re-represent reality. Media production involves selecting and combining incidents, making events into stories, and creating characters. Media representations allow viewers to see the world in some particular ways and not others. Audiences also compare media with their own experiences and make judgements about how realistic they are. Media representations can be seen as real in some ways but not in others: viewers may understand that what they are seeing is only imaginary and yet they still know it can explain reality. [1] Studying media representations means looking at: Realism: Is this text intended to be realistic? Why do some texts seem more realistic than others? Telling the truth: How do media claim to tell the truth about the world? Presence and absence: What is included and excluded from the media world? Bias and objectivity: Do media texts support particular views about the world? Do they use moral or political values? Stereotyping: How do media represent particular social groups? Are those representations accurate? Interpretations: Why do audiences accept some media representations as true, or reject others as false? Influences: Do media representations affect our views of particular social groups or issues? [1] Audience Studying audiences means looking at how demographic audiences are targeted and measured, and how media are circulated and distributed throughout. It means looking at different ways in which individuals use, interpret, and respond to media. The media increasingly have had to compete for peoples attention and interest because research has shown that audiences are now much more sophisticated and diverse than has been suggested in the past. Debating views about audiences and attempting to understand and reflect on our own and others use of media is therefore a crucial element of media education. [1] Studying media audiences means looking at: Targeting: How are media aimed at particular audiences? Address: How do the media speak to audiences? Circulation: How do media reach audiences? Uses: How do audiences use media in their daily lives? What are their habits and patterns of use? Making sense: How do audiences interpret media? What meanings do they make? Pleasures: What pleasures do audiences gain from media? Social differences: What is the role of gender. social class, age, and ethnic background in audience behavior? [1] UNESCO and media education UNESCO has had a long standing experience with media literacy and education. The organization has supported a number of initiatives to introduce media and information literacy as an important part of lifelong learning. [7] Most recently, the UNESCO Action for Media Education and Literacy brought together experts from numerous regions of the world to catalyze processes to introduce media and information literacy components into teacher training curricula worldwide. [7] UNESCO questionnaire In 2001, a media education survey was sent out by UNESCO in order to better understand which countries were incorporating media studies into different schools curriculum as well as to help develop new initiatives in the field of media education. A questionnaire was sent to a total of 72 experts on media education in 52 different countries around the world. The people who received this questionnaire were people involved in academics (such as teachers), policy makers, and educational advisers. The questionnaire addressed three key areas: 1) â€Å"Media education in schools: the extent, aims, and conceptual basis of current provision; the nature of assessment; and the role of production by students. †[8] 2) Partnerships: the involvement of media industries and media regulators in media education; the role of informal youth groups; the provision of teacher education. †[7] 3) â€Å"The development of media education: research and evaluation of media education provision; the main needs of educators; obstacles to future development; and the potential contribution of UNESCO. †[7] The results from the answers of the survey were double-sided. It was noted that media education had been making a very uneven progress because while in one country there was an abundant amount of work towards media education, another country may have hardly even heard of the concept. One of the main reasons why media education has not taken full swing in some countries is because of the lack of policy makers addressing the issue. In some developing countries, educators say that media education was only just beginning to register as a concern because they were just starting to develop basic print literacy. [7] In the countries that media education existed at all, it would be offered as an elective class or an optional area of the school system rather than being on its own. Many countries argued that media education should not be a separate part of the curriculum but rather should be added to a subject  already established. The countries which deemed media education as a part of the curriculum included the United States, Canada, Mexico, New Zealand, and Australia. Many countries lacked even just basic research on media education as a topic, including Russia and Sweden. Some said that popular culture is not worthy enough of study. But all of the correspondents realized the importance of media education as well as the importance of formal recognition from their government and policy makers that media education should be taught in schools. [7] History Media literacy education is actively focused on the instructional methods and pedagogy of media literacy, integrating theoretical and critical frameworks rising from constructivist learning theory, media studies and cultural studies scholarship. This work has arisen from a legacy of media and technology use in education throughout the 20th century and the emergence of cross-disciplinary work at the intersections of scholarly work in media studies and education. Voices of Media Literacy, a project of the Center for Media Literacy representing first-person interviews with media literacy pioneers active prior to 1990 in English-speaking countries, provides historical context for the rise of the media literacy field and is available at http://www. medialit. org/voices-media-literacy-international-pioneers-speak Media education is developing in Great Britain, Australia, South Africa, Canada, the United States, with a growing interest in the Netherlands, Italy, Greece, Austria, Switzerland, India, Russia and among many other nations. UNESCO has played an important role in supporting media and information literacy by encouraging the development of national information and media literacy policies, including in education[9] UNESCO has developed training resources to help teachers integrate information and media literacy into their teaching and provide them with appropriate pedagogical methods and curricula. United Kingdom Education for what is now termed media literacy has been developing in the UK since at least the 1930s. In the 1960s, there was a paradigm shift in the field of media literacy to emphasize working within popular culture rather than trying to convince people that popular culture was primarily destructive. This was known as the popular arts paradigm. In the 1970s, there came a recognition that the ideological power of the media was tied to the naturalization of the image. Constructed messages were being passed off as natural ones. The focus of media literacy also shifted to the consumption of images and representations, also known as the representational paradigm. [10] Development has gathered pace since the 1970s when the first formal courses in Film Studies and, later, Media Studies, were established as options for young people in the 14-19 age range: over 100,000 students (about 5% of this age range) now take these courses annually. Scotland has always had a separate education system from the rest of the UK and began to develop policies for media education in the 1980s. In England, the creation of the National Curriculum in 1990 included some limited requirements for teaching about the media as part of English. The UK is widely regarded as a leader in the development of education for media literacy. Key agencies that have been involved in this development include the British Film Institute,[11] the English and Media Centre[12] Film Education[13] and the Centre for the Study of Children, Youth and Media at the Institute of Education, London. [14] Australia In Australia, media education was influenced by developments in Britain related to the inoculation, popular arts and demystification approaches. Key theorists who influenced Australian media education were Graeme Turner and John Hartley who helped develop Australian media and cultural studies. During the 1980s and 1990s, Western Australians Robyn Quin and Barrie MacMahon wrote seminal text books such as Real Images, translating many complex media theories into classroom appropriate learning frameworks. In most Australian states, media is one of five strands of the Arts Key Learning Area and includes essential learnings or outcomes listed for various stages of development. At the senior level (years 11 and 12), several states offer Media Studies as an elective. For example, many Queensland schools offer Film, Television and New Media, while Victorian schools offer VCE Media. Media education is supported by the teacher professional association Australian Teachers of Media which publishes a range of resources and the excellent Screen Education. Africa In South Africa, the increasing demand for Media Education has evolved from the dismantling of apartheid and the 1994 democratic elections. The first national Media Education conference in South Africa was actually held in 1990 and the new national curriculum has been in the writing stages since 1997. Since this curriculum strives to reflect the values and principles of a democratic society there seems to be an opportunity for critical literacy and Media Education in Languages and Culture courses. Europe In areas of Europe, media education has seen many different forms. Media education was introduced into the Finnish elementary curriculum in 1970 and into high schools in 1977. But the media education we know today did not evolve in Finland until the 1990s. Media education has been compulsory in Sweden since 1980 and in Denmark since 1970. In both these countries, media education evolved in the 1980s and 1990s as media education gradually moved away from moralizing attitudes towards an approach that is more searching and pupil-centered. In 1994, the Danish education bill gave recognition to media education but it is still not an integrated part of the school. The focus in Denmark seems to be on information technology. France has taught film from the inception of the medium, but it has only been recently that conferences and media courses for teachers have been organized with the inclusion of media production. Germany saw theoretical publications on media literacy in the 1970s and 1980s, with a growing interest for media education inside and outside the educational system in the 80s and 90s. In the Netherlands media literacy was placed in the agenda by the Dutch government in 2006 as an important subject for the Dutch society. In April, 2008, an official center has been created (mediawijsheid expertisecentrum = medialiteracy expertisecenter) by the Dutch government. This center is more a network organization existing out of different partners who have their own expertise with the subject of media education. The idea is that media education will become a part of the official curriculum. The history of media education in Russia goes back to the 1920s. The first attempts to instruct in media education (on the press and film materials, with the vigorous emphasis on the communist ideology) appeared in the 1920s but were stopped by Joseph Stalin’s repressions. The end of the 1950s the beginning of the 1960s was the time of the revival of media education in secondary schools, universities, after-school children centers (Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Voronezh, Samara, Kurgan, Tver, Rostov on Don, Taganrog, Novosibirsk, Ekaterinburg, etc.), the revival of media education seminars and conferences for the teachers. During the time when the intensive rethinking of media education approaches was on the upgrade in the Western hemisphere, in Russia of the 1970s–1980s media education was still developing within the aesthetic concept. Among the important achievements of 1970s-1990s one can recall the first official programs of film and media education, published by Ministry of Education, increasing interest of Ph. D. to media education, experimental theoretic and practical work on media education by O. Baranov (Tver), S.Penzin (Voronezh), G. Polichko, U. Rabinovich (Kurgan), Y. Usov (Moscow), Aleksandr Fyodorov (Taganrog), A. Sharikov (Moscow) and others. The important events in media education development in Russia are the registration of the new specialization (since 2002) for the pedagogical universities – ‘Media Education’ (â„â€" 03. 13. 30), and the launch of a new academic journal ‘Media Education’ (since January 2005), partly sponsored by the ICOS UNESCO ‘Information for All’. Additionally, the Internet sites of Russian Association for Film and Media Education (English and Russian versions) were created. Taking into account the fact that UNESCO defines media education as the priority field of the cultural educational development in the 21st century, media literacy has good prospects in Russia. Canada In North America, the beginnings of a formalized approach to media literacy as a topic of education is often attributed to the 1978 formation of the Ontario-based Association for Media Literacy (AML). Before that time, instruction in media education was usually the purview of individual teachers and practitioners. Canada was the first country in North America to require media literacy in the school curriculum. Every province has mandated media education in its curriculum. For example, the new curriculum of Quebec mandates media literacy from Grade 1 until final year of secondary school (Secondary V). The launching of media education in Canada came about for two reasons. One reason was the concern about the pervasiveness of American popular culture and the other was the education system-driven necessity of contexts for new educational paradigms. Canadian communication scholar Marshall McLuhan ignited the North American educational movement for media literacy in the 1950s and 1960s. Two of Canadas leaders in Media Literacy and Media Education are Barry Duncan and John Pungente. Duncan passed away on June 6, 2012, even after retired from classroom teaching but was still active in media education. Pungente is a Jesuit priest who has promoted media literacy since the early 1960s. Media Awareness Network (MNet), a Canadian non-profit media education organization, hosts a Web site which contains hundreds of free lesson plans to help teachers integrate media into the classroom. MNet also has created award-winning educational games on media education topics, several of which are available free from the site, and has also conducted original research on media issues, most notable the study Young Canadians in a Wired World. MNet also hosts the Talk Media Blog, a regular column on media education issues. The United States Media literacy education has been an interest in the United States since the early 20th century, when high school English teachers first started using film to develop students critical thinking and communication skills. However, media literacy education is distinct from simply using media and technology in the classroom, a distinction that is exemplified by the difference between teaching with media and teaching about media. [15] In the 1950s and 60s, the ‘film grammar’ approach to media literacy education developed in the United States, where educators began to show commercial films to children, having them learn a new terminology consisting of words such as fade, dissolve, truck, pan, zoom, and cut. Films were connected to literature and history. To understand the constructed nature of film, students explored plot development, character, mood and tone. Then, during the 1970s and 1980s, attitudes about mass media and mass culture began to shift. Around the English-speaking world, educators began to realize the need to â€Å"guard against our prejudice of thinking of print as the only real medium that the English teacher has a stake in. †[16] A whole generation of educators began to not only acknowledge film and television as new, legitimate forms of expression and communication, but also explored practical ways to promote serious inquiry and analysis—- in higher education, in the family, in schools and in society. [17] Typically, U. S. media literacy education includes a focus on news, advertising, issues of representation, and media ownership. Media literacy competencies can also be cultivated in the home, through activities including co-viewing and discussion. [18] Media literacy education began to appear in state English education curriculum frameworks by the early 1990s as a result of increased awareness in the central role of visual, electronic and digital media in the context of contemporary culture. Nearly all 50 states have language that supports media literacy in state curriculum frameworks. [19] In 2004, Montana developed educational standards around media literacy that students are required to be competent in by grades 4, 8, and 12. Additionally, an increasing number of school districts have begun to develop school-wide programs, elective courses, and other after-school opportunities for media analysis and production. There is no national data on the reach of media literacy programs in the United States. [20] The evolution of information and communication technologies has expanded the subject of media literacy to incorporate information literacy, collaboration and problem-solving skills, and emphasis on the social responsibilities of communication. Various stakeholders struggle over nuances of meaning associated with the conceptualization of the practice on media literacy education. Educational scholars may use the term critical media literacy to emphasize the exploration of power and ideology in media analysis. Other scholars may use terms like new media literacy to emphasize the application of media literacy to user-generated content or 21st century literacy to emphasize the use of technology tools. [21] As far back as 2001, the Action Coalition for Media Education (ACME) split from the main media literacy organization as the result of debate about whether or not the media industry should support the growth of media literacy education in the United States. Renee Hobbs of Temple University in Philadelphia wrote about this general question as one of the Seven Great Debates in media literacy education in an influential 1998 Journal of Communication article. [22] The media industry has supported media literacy education in the United States. Make Media Matter is one of the many blogs (an â€Å"interactive forum†) the Independent Film Channel features as a way for individuals to assess the role media plays in society and the world. The television program, The Media Project, offers a critical look at the state of news media in contemporary society. During the 1990s, the Discovery Channel supported the implementation of Assignment: Media Literacy, a statewide educational initiative for K-12 students developed in collaboration with the Maryland State Board of Education. Because of the decentralized nature of the education system in a country with 70 million children now in public or private schools, media literacy education develops as the result of groups of advocates in school districts, states or regions who lobby for its inclusion in the curriculum. There is no central authority making nationwide curriculum recommendations and each of the fifty states has numerous school districts, each of which operates with a great degree of independence from one another. However, most U. S. states include media literacy in health education, with an emphasis on understanding environmental influences on health decision-making. Tobacco and alcohol advertising are frequently targeted as objects for deconstruction, which is one of the instructional methods of media literacy education. This resulted from an emphasis on media literacy generated by the Clinton White House. The Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) held a series of conferences in 1996 and 1997 which brought greater awareness of media literacy education as a promising practice in health and substance abuse prevention education. The medical and public health community now recognizes the media as a cultural environmental influence on health and sees media literacy education as a strategy to support the development of healthy behavior. Interdisciplinary scholarship in media literacy education is emerging. In 2009, a scholarly journal was launched, the Journal of Media Literacy Education,[23] to support the work of scholars and practitioners in the field. Universities such as Appalachian State University, Columbia University, Ithaca College, New York University, the University of Texas-Austin, Temple University, and the University of Maryland offer courses and summer institutes in media literacy for pre-service teachers and graduate students. Brigham Young University offers a graduate program in media education specifically for inservice teachers. The Salzburg Academy for Media and Global Change is another institution that educates students and professionals from around the world the importance of being literate about the media. Impacts of Media Literacy Education on Civic Engagement Media literacy education appears to have a positive impact on overall youth civic engagement. [24] Youth who attend schools that offer media literacy programs are more likely to politically engage online and are more likely to report encountering diverse viewpoints online. [25] Youth Interest in Media Literacy A nationally representative survey found that 84% of young people think they and their friends would benefit from training on verifying information found online. [26] National Association for Media Literacy Education More than 600 educators are members of the National Association for Media Literacy Education (NAMLE), a national membership group that hosts a bi-annual conference. In 2009, this group developed an influential policy document, the Core Principles of Media Literacy Education in the United States. [27] It states, The purpose of media literacy education is to help individuals of all ages develop the habits of inquiry and skills of expression that they need to be critical thinkers, effective communicators and active citizens in today’s world. Principles include: (1) Media Literacy Education requires active inquiry and critical thinking about the messages we receive and create; (2) Media Literacy Education expands the concept of literacy in all forms of media (i. e. , reading and writing); (3) Media Literacy Education builds and reinforces skills for learners of all ages. Like print literacy, those skills necessitate integrated, interactive, and repeated practice; (4) Media Literacy Education develops informed, reflective and engaged participants essential for a democratic society; (5) Media Literacy Education recognizes that media are a part of culture and function as agents of socialization; and (6) Media Literacy Education affirms that people use their individual skills, beliefs and experiences to construct their own meanings from media messages.

Social Impact of Communication Technology

Social Impact of Communication Technology INTRODUCTION New communication technologies have become a phenomenon of the modern age. It is used by millions of people worldwide, and significantly influences their way of living and communicating with one another. Rogers (1986) defined several social impacts which have emerged through extensive usage of new communication technologies. Information overload and knowledge gap are examined in this paper as two possible social impacts of new communication technology mentioned by Rogers. Practical examples are reviewed, assessing whether information is equally distributed among all social groups and how information usage has evolved in modern society. 1.0 Information Overload Most people are unable to effectively manage the amount of information to which they are constantly exposed. Overloading of our memory can be compared to an overflowing glass filled with water. If water keeps flowing continuously into a full glass everything above the glass ribbon overflows. . Our information absorption is limited, and our brain can only handle a certain amount of incoming information. Nowadays, people are flooded with information which is coming from various sources, and is very difficult to differentiate value-add information from information noise. As John Naisbitt in his book Megatrends said:†We are drowning in information and starved for knowledge† (Naisbitt,1982, p.24). On the other hand, it is good to have so much information at our finger tips, while information is available more easily than any-time before.There is very little we can’t find out within seconds with search engines running on our communication gadgets. Among the many researches documenting information overload, is the most noticeable is research by Reuters agency called â€Å"Dying for information† published by CNI in 1998. The research indicated that people cannot cope with the volume of information which they receive every-day. They spend substantial time searching for information, needed for decision taking, and information collection distracts them from main responsibilities. One disturbing effect is the increase in the level of stress which is linked to enormous amounts of information received. Thus, the finding showed how information overload influences our mental health and social life. In a second research conducted by University of London, published in 22.4. 2005 by BBC News, that the relation between communication technology and mental sharpness was observed. Distractions from incoming email or phone calls caused up to a 10-point fall in IQ. One can notice that information overload can impose both direct cost linked to cost of information maintenance and indirect cost imposed trough, impact on health or social life. 1.1 The blurring of lines between entertainment and information overload Donald O. Case in book ‘Looking for Information’ describes difference between informative information and entertaining information (Case, 2007, p. 108). Separating the search of â€Å"informative information from entertaining information† in everyday life is often almost impossible. People daily receive increasing number of information from news, blogs, tabloids; social network-status posts and they often cannot differentiate which information is useful and they need to understand versus information which might not be completely accurate. Does the excessive flow of information necessarily lead to more thinking? Or does it cause the society to think less? There are some writers who believe that too much information can lead to the increase in the level of ‘noise’ or confusion in understanding the meaning to the message. One of the most interesting elements of this noise was caused by development of Internet which gave rise to virtual communities, or vi rtual cultures. Kovà ¡Ãƒâ€žÃ‚ ovà ¡ (2011, p.251) refers to creation of own fantasy world where the individual (subject) can manipulate and recreate his identity according to his or her own imagination. The main aim of this virtual world is to bring into the online world the best version of oneself, with a new identity. One disturbing impact of virtual identities can be seen in the way how people view relations. In Japan the growth of virtual world games caused rise of Otaku culture. In BBC, 24.10 2013 has been published an article about men who prefer virtual girlfriends to sex. Most of those people also decided to change their identity for abetter one. Nowadays, people have areal problem to cope with all the information around them and they do not understand difference between reality and fantasy. It seems that quantity of information become more important than the quality. Therefore, one can observe that from all of these examples, it is obvious that information overload brings alot of disadvantages which affect us. Our environment is fast-changing and so is the way how we receive, manage and use information. Amount of information determines the usage and evolution of communication technology. 2.0 THE KNOWLEDGE –GAP HYPOTESIS Knowledge as other kinds of wealth is not distributed equally throughout our society. People who are struggling with financial poverty are also often information poor, with limited access to newest communication technology. Knowledge gap theory is based on the premise that while the production of mass media increases, the knowledge gap between different social groups widens. One reason is the ability of opposing social groups to respond to changes that are taking place in the society and adapt within a certain time interval. In the first hypothesis about knowledge gap found in the study of Tichenor, Donohue Olien (1970,p.159), the authors wrote: â€Å"As the infusion of mass media information into a social system increases, segments of the population with higher socioeconomic status tend to acquire this information at a faster rate than the lower status segments, so that the gap in knowledge between these segments tends to increase rather than decrease.† The author also point s out that in measuring the knowledge gap, one should factor in people with access to more information only, and not people who have very little access to new information, as this could incorrectly skew the results. People with low socioeconomic status would most likely have lower access to information. A key indicator of socioeconomic status is education. At the same time, education is also an important factor that influences interest in obtaining information. 2.1 DIGITAL DIVIDE In the new era of globalization, communication technology plays an increasingly important role. Number of people is connecting to the Internet to conduct their daily activities and they are becoming more and more dependent on technology. The access to information has become synonym of access to communication technology. Inability in access to communication technology can result in information inequality. Very often the theory of a digital gap (digital divide) is quoted, which expands the previous concepts of knowledge-gap hypothesis, information poverty and knowledge. Simply the digital divide can be defined as the gap between those who have the possibility of access to modern information and communication technologies and benefit from them and to those who do not have this privilege. Multiple publications examined the phenomenon of digital divide from different angles. Norris (2001) in his work makes a clear distinction of three different aspects of understanding the digital divide. First of all, he defined first aspect as global divide between countries. This means inequality in access to information communication technologies andinternet between developed and developing countries. As a second aspect Norris described social inequality within one nation or state (social stratification within counties), where the inequality is between information poor and information rich. Last aspect of digital divide highlights the democratic gap which refers to the difference between those that use digital technology to participation in public life and those who through these technologies do not engage publicly. As an illustration, in Slovakia since 2005, research is being conducted by the Institute for Public Affairs Slovakia, in the area of communication technologies usage in Slovakian households, under the name Digital Literacy in Slovakia 2013. The research shows that people with higher education degree are more active users of communication technology than people with lower education degree. Low educated, low-skilled, low-income households and residents of small communities belong to the part of population which stood at the edge of the digital divide (IT News, 2013). It is apparent that the lack of information access is not only an issue of developing countries of the third world but still a hot topic among developed countries too. The task of a modern society today is to ensure equal access to information and to take appropriate measures ensuring that access to information is available to all. Conclusion This paper examined the social impacts caused by the implementation and usage of new communication technology in our day-to-day life. Differences were examined between the inequality of those who benefit from technology and those who do not. Although social networks and communication gadgets have become a part of our culture, for the first time in our history, an unintended consequence is that information overload has led to an information crisis. Practical examples examined different angles of social impacts of communication technology and information evolution in modern society. Society as a whole may need to take steps to assure that access to information is available to all, while defining clear rules and practices to effectively manage and process information inflow.

The Origins of Life Essay -- Science Scientific Essays Research

The Origins of Life Before any speculation toward the origin of biotic forms, what was present at the formation of the earth that could result in inorganic, then organic, and later biotic creatures? Early atmospheric conditions have been theorized to be present due to planetesimal collisions releasing gases present in the Earth, after the initial atmosphere of Hydrogen and Helium escaped Earth’s gravity assisted by heat energy. The earlier atmosphere is believed to have consisted mainly of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen (bonded to other elements) in such forms as CO2/CO, N2, and H20. Stanley Miller, through experimentation, shows that given an energy source like heat or electric charge it is possible to form reactions that create complex molecules, and through subsequent experiments nucleic acids like adenine were even formed. This is the premise for the â€Å"hot† theories of the origin of life. Given there are many derivative possibilities like process evolution, chemoauto trophic, and photoautotrophic origins, the basis is that given an energy source (heat) basic elements can form and break bonds to become increasingly complex. Given the theories have technically been progressing since 1922 and A.I. Oparin’s hypothesizing, the major strides have been in recent research. Through studies of volcanic activity, fossils, and archaebacteria, speculation leans heavily toward evidence provided by â€Å"hot† theory experiments. Given that it is quite plausible and possible that the early earth had the suggested â€Å"hot† environment providing heat and monomers that can combine to become polymers, the main step to come into question is, when did these polymers amount to life? â€Å"Life for Dummies† would suggest that life requi... ...dial Peptide Cycle†. Science 301 (15 August 2003): 938-940. Leman, Luke, Leslie Orgel, and M. Reza Ghadiri. â€Å"Carbonyl Sulfide – Mediated Prebiotic Formation of Peptides†. Science 306 (8 October 2004): 283-286. Luskin, Casey, and Reid Hankins. â€Å"Problems with Purely Natural Explanations for the Origins of Life on Earth†. Intelligent Design and Evolution Awareness Club 2001. 22 November 2004. . Szaflarski, Diane. â€Å"Possible Sites for the Origin of Life†. Cruising Chemistry. 22 November 2004. . Wachtershauser, Gunter. â€Å"Life as We Don’t Know It†. Science 289 (25 October 2000): 1307-1308. Zubay, Geoffrey. Origins of Life on the Earth and in the Cosmos. San Diego: Academic Press, 2000.

The Failure of Amanda in The Glass Menagerie Essay example -- The Glas

The Failure of Amanda in The Glass Menagerie In Tennessee Williams’, â€Å"The Glass Menagerie† Amanda was a woman who liked to reminisce about the past in order to escape from reality. Amanda was not wicked but intensely flawed. Her failures were centrally responsible for the adversity and exaggerated style of her character. Certainly, she had the endurance and heroism that she was able to support her children when her husband was gone. In her old life, she was once a Southern Belle with a genteel manner who lived on Blue Mountain. This was a place where Amanda’s version of the good old days back when she was young and popular. Amanda was full of charm in conversation that she managed to have seventeen gentlemen caller in a single day. Amanda liked to talk to her children having seventeen gentlemen callers but ended up marrying a charming Irishman who worked for the telephone company. He traveled and left the family and the only reminder of him was his smiling photograph. Amanda turned the tragedy of her h usband’s abandonment as a joke, â€Å"a telephone man who fell in love with long distances† (643). Amanda’s relationship with her children was illustrated by her failure in life and the exaggerated style of her character. Amanda always put up a defensive front for others to view that hid the reality of her life. She painted a colorful picture for others to perceive. Amanda worked hard to make the apartment ready for her daughter’s gentleman caller. She talked of polishing the wedding silver, taking out the monogrammed table linen to be laundered, cleaning the windows and putting up fresh curtains. Amanda even went so far as to enhance Laura’s bosom with two powder puffs. She called it â€Å"gay deceiver†(662). Amanda was affectionate and loving but demanding beyond reason. She was not in anyway cruel, in fact, very loving but her desires for her family became so unpleasant for her children. Amanda’s relationship with Tom was difficult with and often unreasonable. Although he was a grown man whose wages supported their family, she still would intervene with the affairs of his life. Amanda would instruct Tom how to chew his food by telling that â€Å"animals have secretions in their stomach which enable them to digest food without mastication, but human beings are supposed to chew their food before they swallow it down†(644). Tom goes to the movies as an escape from his ... ...r Laura to have a gentleman caller was another failure. Jim was engaged and is to be married soon. Amanda was furious because the plan did not work out. She accused him of playing a practical joke on them, by intentionally bringing another woman’s fiancà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ to disgrace them. Amanda was obviously surprised, the evening had been expensive for the Wingfields, and her dreams for her daughter have been shattered. Amanda was a woman who typically refuses to face reality that resulted in a lot of disappointments and frustrations. Looking back to the past with regrets only prevented her from moving on. She could have used her past experiences and learned from it. Although she is caring and loving, she should not have sacrificed the happiness of her children for her own selfish desires. Her fears had made her life and the lives of her children miserable. Had she learned to be patient, strong and accepting of what life has brought, she and her family could have had a more fulfilling life. Work Cited Williams, Tennessee. â€Å"The Glass Menagerie.† Literature and the Writing Process. Ed. Elizabeth McMahan, Susan X. Day, and Robert Funk. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River; Prentice, 2003 641-681

Cry, the Beloved Country :: Cry the Beloved Country Essays

Cry, the Beloved Country In Cry, the Beloved Country, the author, Alan Paton used two main characters to present both the whites and Africans' point of view. James Jarvis, Paton's European characters experienced a subtle but yet also impacting transition; His indifference towards the evolving problems of the society later surprisingly transformed into the courage to take actions in solving these problems. Through his journey in Johannesburg, trying to understand his son's "liberal" view and witnessing a downfall of an African girl, Jarvis found out that his apathy only worsened the predicaments faced by his country; For he could not be a spectator after his son's death, Jarvis decided to "...about doing whatever good is within his power." However, Jarvis discovered that "such thing [helping Africans in anywhere he could] is not lightly done", but required boldness and determination to fulfill these goals. As the book II of Cry, the Beloved Country unfolded, Paton described Jarvis as a white British farmer looking down at the valley from his "high place", an narrow minded person who only saw things from his point of view, "... if they [Africans] got more land, and if by some chance they could make a living off from it, who would work on the white man's farm?". In his stay at Johannesburg, Jarvis learned that his recent murdered son, Arthur Jarvis who fought and spoke about the very problems of the society that his father ignores and avoids. "Yes, he [Arthur Jarvis] was always speaking here and there ... Native crime, and more native schools, and he kicked up a hell of a dust in the papers about the conditions at the noneuropean hospital.". Devastated by the death of his deceased son and confused by "this boy of his who had gone journeying in strange water", Jarvis found himself beginning to doubt his principles and moral. "I didn't know it would ever be so important to understand him [ Arthur Jarvis]" Indeed, Jarvis found that indifference is slowly degenerating the society around him, "...she went to the bad and started to brew liquor ...she was arrested and sent to jail... I do not know... And I do not care." Later, as Jarvis comes upon an essay written by his son, "From them [James and Mary Jarvis] I [Arthur Jarvis] learned all that a child should learn of honor and charity and generosity.

Ancient Athens-Democracy Essay

Our idea of democracy was derived from ancient Athens. Ancient Athens was very important in history because it was the first government to run as a democracy. Without their ideas, many other countries would not have a democracy. In Athens, women did not have a lot of freedom and spent most of their days in the house as a housewife. They were considered only one class above slaves and were practically an object that their husband owned. The role of women has improved a lot from Ancient Athens to modern American society. Women in Athens did not have many legal rights unlike the modern American society now where men and women are equal. They were not allowed to be taught to read or write nor were they allowed to get any type of education besides preparing to become a housewife. Women were not allowed to vote and were discouraged to leave the house for any reason. If they needed something from outside they got their slave to do it for them. As a child all women were raised this way and know no other way of living. Their own mothers were raised this way too and as a housewife, they taught their own daughters how to become one too. Now in modern America, women have just as equal rights as men like getting an education, having a job, voting, holding elective office and a lot more. With the women’s rights movement and the 19th amendment, women have gone far to earn their rights. Another reason how the role of women improved is because back then in an Athenian marriage, the husband was always the more dominant one and the wife just agreed to everything to what her husband said or at least pretended to agree. Even before the marriage, the women did not have any say in anything. Her father and groom arranged the marriage completely. During the wedding, they even had rituals to show that the woman was now the â€Å"preparer of food†. Nowadays it is not like this at all. They are equal in the relationship; no one is more dominant then the other. Also women do not just agree with her husband in their marriage, they get say. Although most women were housewives, there was one other thing that females can be besides a normal citizen which was to be a Hetaerae. Hetaera was basically just a prostitute but surprisingly unlike the modern world, they ere considered a slightly higher class then normal women citizens. They were given an education and were allowed into sacred places that normal women citizens were not allowed into. Even this type of role for women has improved in this world because now women don’t have to do that to get more respect. Women are already respected and actually, becoming a prostitute is looked down on and is considered a lower class. Without the ancient Athens’ idea of a democracy, we would have never had a democracy. The role of women has really changed and improved from ancient Athens to the modern American present day. Bibliography http://www.greeceindex.com/greece-attica/Athens_democracy.html

Asia europe transport problems

Recent political and economic developments at the global and regional levels have resulted in a more conducive development environment in the Asian and Pacific region and the opening-up of opportunities for international trade and tourism development for the developing countries of the region, including those which are landlocked. Nevertheless, the lack of unhindered access to the sea adds transport costs and time to international trade transactions. In addition, landlocked countries face greater transport risks and hazards than countries which have direct access to nternational sea routes.The United Nations has addressed the specific concerns of landlocked countries in a number of documents. Among those which are directly related to transport are the following: General Assembly resolution 50/97 of 20 December 1995 on specific actions related to the particular needs and problems of landlocked developing countries; â€Å"Global framework for transit transport cooperation between land locked and transit developing countries and the donor community† (TD/B/LDC/AC. /6); â€Å"Problem of physical infrastructure development of the landlocked countries, ncluding economies in transition† (E/ESCAP/SREC(7)/3); and â€Å"Progress report on measures designed to improve the transit transport environment in Central Asia† (A/ 51/288). With Just-in-time delivery becoming almost a prerequisite for efficient international trade, particularly in an increasingly competitive market environment, adequate attention must be given to resolving problems in transport areas which are crucial for the efficient development of the international trade of landlocked countries.The inauguration in May 1996 of a new rail line linking the Islamic Republic of Iran nd Turkmenistan, thus completing a new â€Å"silk rail route† from China to Europe via the landlocked countries of Central Asia; the priority attention of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the development of the ne cessary physical infrastructure, as well as bilateral and multilateral agreements for international transport particularly to and from Central Asia; the establishment in May 1996 of a forum for the comprehensive development of regions along the second Europe-Asia continental bridge which is of importance to Mongolia and the landlocked countries of Central Asia; the initiative of he Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) on the development of a rail link from Singapore through Malaysia, Thailand, Viet Nam or the Lao People's Democratic Republic and on to Kunming, China; and the recently completed study of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) on transport and transit needs, including those of Nepal and Bhutan, are vivid illustrations of the commitment of the member countries of ESCAP to the development of a land transport network in Asia in The present note highlights some of the issues and problems of physical and soft nfrastructure in the main modes of transport (with emphasis on land transport, inland waterways and connections to seaports) which serve the landlocked countries in the region, namely Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bhutan, Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Mongolia, Nepal, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. l.MAJOR ISSUES AND PROBLEMS IN THE TRANSPORT SECTOR To improve the efficiency and competitiveness of international trade and tourism in the landlocked countries of the region, the following issues relating to major modes of transport need to be addressed: (a) choice of alternative transit routes; b) reduction of transit costs and time along the transport routes; and (c) cooperation among the organizations concerned. A. Choice of alternative transit routes Although many of the landlocked countries in the region have several potential routes to seaports, most of them are heavily dependent on one main transit route because of limited resources and, in some cases, the limited opt ions open to them in the past as a result of the political situation at that time.This render these countries vulnerable to disruption of transit services owing to national disasters, technical and operational breakdowns, labour disputes and conflicts. Moreover, in view of regionalization and globalization of economic development, different access routes to different seaports may be required for efficient transport of goods to trade partners located in different parts of the globe. Therefore, it is important for any landlocked country to have a choice of transit land transport routes (and inland waterways if applicable) to the main seaports in Asia, as well as a choice of air transport routes and connections to major subregional, regional and global destinations. In addition, in view of the development of trade within Asia, as well as betweenAsia and Europe, there is an increasing demand for reliable and efficient intra-Asia and Asia-Europe land bridges with connections to landlocke d countries in the region. The landlocked countries need to be part of an integrated approach to the development of an intra-Asia and Asia-Europe land transport network of international importance. 1. Formalization of the international land transport network in Asia The Commission at its forty-eighth session, held in Beijing in April 1992, endorsed comprising the Asian Highway; the Trans-Asian Railway; and facilitation of land ransport, as a priority for phase II (1992-1996) of the Transport and Communications Decade for Asia and the Pacific.The objective of the project is to assist in creating a land transport network in Asia to facilitate international trade and tourism. The route selection criteria include capital-to-capital links and connections to main industrial and agricultural centres, and connections to major seaports and river ports, as well as to major container terminals and depots. The network should also provide interregional land transport linkages, particularly with the region of the Economic Commission for Europe. The project enjoys support from 25 ESCAP members, including all the landlocked countries except Armenia, Azerbaijan and Bhutan which have yet to Join the project. Armenia and Azerbaijan, however, are participating in activities that are related to ALTID.With the successful implementation of phase I (1994-1995) of the ALTID project, considerable progress has been achieved in the formulation of the international land transport network in Asia linking landlocked countries. The Asian Highway network (see figure l) has been revised in the southern corridor connecting the Islamic Republic of Iran – South Asia – South-East Asia (which includes he landlocked countries of Afghanistan, Nepal and the Lao People's Democratic Republic), and a new network formulated in the corridor South-East Asia – China – Mongolia. A study on the development of highway networks in the landlocked Asian republics (Armenia, Azerbaijan, K azakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan) to identify the potential Asian Highway routes in those countries was completed in 1996.The Trans-Asian Railway network includes the following land bridges between Asia and Europe: Europe-Russian Federation and/or China-Korean peninsula; Europe-Islamic Republic of Iran-Central Asia-China (New Silk Railway); Europe-Islamic Republic of Iran-South Asia-South-East Asia. With the completion during phase I ofa feasibility study on connecting the rail networks of China, Kazakstan, Mongolia, the Russian Federation and the Korean peninsula, and a project on the Trans-Asian Railway in the Indo-China and ASEAN subregions, the network has been formulated in the northern corridor of the Asia-Europe routes (see fgure II) which includes the landlocked countries of Kazakstan and Mongolia, and in the Indo-China and ASEAN subregions (see figure Ill), the Lao People's Democratic Republic.A potential Trans- Asian Railway network in the sout hern corridor of the Asia-Europe routes (of importance to Afghanistan and Nepal) was also identified (see fgure ‘V) through a related preliminary study. The Commission at its fifty-second session reiterated its strong support for the ALTID project and emphasized the importance of its completion and of improving the operational efficiency of both the Asian Highway and Trans-Asian Railway networks, including the Asia-Europe links, at the earliest possible date. The Commission adopted resolution 52/9 of 24 April 1996 on Intra-Asia and Asia-Europe land bridges. rogramme of the New Delhi Action Plan on Infrastructure Development in Asia and the Pacific.It also approved the plan of action for the implementation of phase II (1996-1997) of the ALTID project, which includes a detailed study on the southern corridor of the Trans-Asian Railway, and it decided that a study on the development of the Railway in the corridor connecting South-East and North-East Asia (including the Lao People 's Democratic Republic and Mongolia) should be undertaken and that similar studies on the development of the Asian Highway and the Trans-Asian Railway in the corridor connecting northern Europe with the Russian Federation to the landlocked countries of Central Asia and the Islamic Republic of Iran should be included in the projected phase Ill (1998-1999) of the project. 13. When completed and fully operational for the whole of Asia, the land transport network could provide landlocked countries in the region with a choice of alternative land transport routes to major seaports in Asia, and land transport and land-cum-sea links to any other country in Asia and Europe.However, to realize such a potential, the landlocked countries must have unhindered access to the network. . Unhindered access to the international land transport network in Asia The construction of the regional land transport network and all related infrastructure is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for reliable and efficient international transport. A legal framework is also required to provide the basis for unhindered access to the routes for efficient international trade and tourism. A coordinated plan for the development of international land transport routes and services based on agreed performance parameters and standards is also essential.This has been vividly demonstrated by the experience of Europe, where the ollowing four major all-European transport agreements have been adopted: (a) The European Agreement on Main International Traffic Arteries (AGR Agreement) of 1975, which defines the major European roads and establishes uniform technical characteristics; (b) The European Agreement on Main International Railway Lines (AGC Agreement) of 1985, which determines the major lines and infrastructure parameters of the European railway network; (c) The European Agreement on Important International Combined Transport Lines and Related Installations (AGTC Agreement) of 1991, which is the first European ultilateral treaty governing international combined road/rail container and piggyback transport; (d)International infrastructure agreement covering European inland waterways Oanuary 1996). recommended that a legal framework should be developed for Asia in the form of ESCAP agreements on the Asian Highway and Trans-Asian Railway, taking into consideration the related experience of the European Union. With such ESCAP agreements in place, all the countries in Asia, including the landlocked countries, would enjoy free access to road and rail transport routes of international importance. 3. Inland waterways of international importance to some of the landlocked countries in Asia Inland water transport can play an important role for the regional or international trade of some landlocked countries.A number of rivers in these countries can potentially provide the cheapest means of communication with neighbouring countries, or even through them to other countries in the world. For instance, a number of tributaries of the Brahmaputra River flow out of Bhutan through India to Bangladesh; the Lao People's Democratic Republic is bordered or bisected by the Mekong River which flows through China, Myanmar, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam; Mongolia gives rise to the Yenisey, the Angara and the Amur-Heilongjiang rivers which link the country to China and the Russian Federation; and Nepal has three of the four largest tributaries of the Ganges River flowing from India to Bangladesh.The improvement and development of inland water transport infrastructure and services would benefit all of these countries in various ways, including cost savings, environmental protection and energy savings. In addition, transit by water is more easily accepted by operators of seaports located at river mouths and it is less prone o losses, pilferage and breakage than transit by road and rail. At the present time, however, the rivers are not fully u tilized for navigation in most landlocked countries. Most of the rivers are still in a natural state without appropriate improvement and marking. Water levels in the rivers are not always regular or sufficient and the gradient is often very steep. In some river sections, the waterways are full of rapids and shoals which endanger vessel navigation or even interrupt it entirely.Some rivers are blocked with siltation, cables, pipelines, bridges, dams and other structures along or crossing them. Few aids to navigation are nstalled to mark the navigable channels in the rivers. All these factors limit the free use of the rivers for transport. However, the potential of inland water transport for international trade should be evaluated. In order to promote the use of rivers for transport which would serve the needs of landlocked countries, ESCAP is implementing several projects under the regional action programme of the New Delhi Action Plan on Infrastructure Development, which was launched by the Ministerial Conference on Infrastructure in October 1996.One of the projects is on the harmonization of requirements relating to international mportance of common or well harmonized rules, and provide guidance with regard to navigation rules, aids to navigation, the carriage of dangerous goods, facilitation measures and waterway classifications for internationally navigable rivers. Another important project is on the development of inland water transport infrastructure and services. This project includes a regional strategic study for the development of inland water transport in the ESCAP region. An intensive investigation will be carried out to identify the problems faced by the inland water transport sector. The situation ill be compared with successful experiences in other parts of the world.This study should provide a clear picture of the advantages and disadvantages of inland water transport in specific situations, identify opportunities for development and suggest regi onal actions and national policy options to expand the use of rivers for navigation in the ESCAP region. Expert group and policy-level meetings will be held to discuss the findings and suggestions of the study. Necessary follow-up actions will be taken at both the regional and national levels. With regard to some landlocked Asian republics, the same opportunity may exist or transit transport through inland waterways. Specific studies need to be carried out to identify the potential for the expanded use of inland waterways. 4. Air transport It goes without saying that reliable and efficient air transport is crucial for the economic and social progress of landlocked countries.While the emphasis in this paper is on related aspects of land transport, inland waterways and maritime linkages and transport, the following activities of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) have been included in the regional action programme 1997-2001) of the New Delhi Action Plan on Infrastruc ture Development in Asia and the Pacific and endorsed by the Ministerial Conference on Infrastructure: programme of transition to the new civil aviation communications, navigation and surveillance and air traffic management system; programme for economic reform in civil aviation in Asia and the Pacific; programme for the protection of the environment in the vicinity of airports; improvement and harmonization of flight safety standards; expansion of the UNDP-promoted ICAO TRAINAIR programme; and poverty alleviation through rural airfield development in least developed countries. These projects address major problem areas in air transport in the Asian and Pacific region, including in the landlocked countries. B.Reduction of transit time and costs along the transport routes of While the formulation of an international land transport network in Asia is in progress through the implementation of the ALTID project, there are already a provide the landlocked countries with access to seaport s. These are reflected in table 1. 1. Reduction of transit time and costs at border crossings and ports Even when all necessary infrastructure is in place, the delay of vehicles at border rossings can entail tremendous losses of resources and time. A similar problem occurs when the waiting time is long for ships to be loaded and unloaded in seaports which serve landlocked countries. When international inland waterways are available for use, delays of cargo at cross-border points have similar economic effects. a) Facilitation of land transport at border-crossings (i)Commission resolution 48/11 on road and rail transport modes in relation to facilitation measures Recognizing that harmonized transport facilitation measures are a prerequisite for efficient international trade and transport along road and rail routes of nternational importance, the Page 1 1 Commission at its forty-eighth session adopted resolution 48/11 of 23 April 1992 on road and rail transport modes in relation to fac ilitation measures. By that resolution, it recommended that the countries in the region, if they had not already done so, consider the possibility of acceding to seven international conventions. The status of the accession of the landlocked and neighbouring countries in Asia to the international conventions is shown in table 2.It is clear that in order to facilitate international and bilateral trade and tourism the constructive cooperation of the ountries is required to create a minimum legal basis for land transport cross-border traffic. In this respect ESCAP adopted a subregional approach to providing assistance to countries. A special seminar for the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) subregion (with the participation of Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan) on the implications and benefits of accession to the conventions was held in Tehran in November 1994. A similar seminar for the North-East Asian countries (including the Lao People's Democratic Republic and Mongolia) was conducted in May 1996 in Bangkok.Another seminar for countries of the Greater Mekong subregion (including the Lao People's Democratic Republic) was organized Jointly by ESCAP and the Asian Development Bank at It is very encouraging to note that Uzbekistan has acceded to six conventions, and Kazakstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan have each acceded to four. However, Afghanistan, Armenia and Kyrgyzstan are each party to only two; Azerbaijan, to one; and Bhutan, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Mongolia and Nepal to none at all. A similar situation of accession to few or no convention occurs in the neighbouring ountries of Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Myanmar, Pakistan, Thailand and Viet Nam. Such a situation calls for the urgent implementation of Commission resolution 48/11 by all landlocked countries and their neighbouring countries. Transit facilitation Transit transport plays a particularly important role in the develop ment of landlocked countries.Two international conventions, namely the Convention and Statute on Freedom of Transit, Barcelona, 20 April 1921 (popularly referred to as the â€Å"Barcelona Transit Convention†), and the Convention on Transit Trade of Landlocked States, New York, 8 July 1965 (â€Å"New York Transit Convention†) assist in facilitating the transit transport of landlocked countries. However, only a few of the Asian landlocked countries and their neighbouring countries are contracting parties of these conventions, as indicated in table 3. There is clearly great potential to improve transit transport in the region. It is recommended that the landlocked countries and the neighbouring countries should accede, if they have not already done so, to the Barcelona and New York transit conventions as soon as possible.The development of a subregional multilateral transit treaty/agreement also ppears to be a promising approach to transit facilitation. Preparation of suc h a draft transit treaty for the ECO region, for example, could be carried out as part of the project on international transport development in the ECO region, which is being proposed Jointly by ESCAP, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development and ECO for possible funding by the Islamic Development Bank. (iii) Multilateral and bilateral agreements on land transport facilitation Multilateral and bilateral agreements which govern land transport at border crossings are of great importance to the landlocked countries in Asia.Given the role f the agreements in promoting international traffic, a database covering mainland Asia is being established at ESCAP as part of the ALTID project. As indicated above, there are several main rivers in Asia which may be used by landlocked countries for international transport. To facilitate navigation and river basin development activities, a draft agreement on commercial navigation on the Lancang Jiang – Mekong River (upper reaches of the Mekong River) between the Governments of China, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Myanmar and Thailand has been drawn up and it is expected that this agreement will be signed in the near uture.The Agreement on Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the Mekong River Basin was signed on 5 April 1995 between the countries of the Lower Mekong River basin (Cambodia, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Thailand and Viet Nam). The Mekong River Commission is the institutional framework through which the Agreement will be implemented. The bilateral agreement between Bangladesh and India, which is signed on a biennial basis, could also be of practical interest to landlocked countries. Similar arrangements which take into account the related experience in other regions could e of great practical value in facilitating international inland water transport in Asia, including in landlocked countries. c) Facilitation of maritime traffic In addition to facilitation for land tran sport and transport on inland waterways, facilitation of maritime traffic plays an important role in improving the efficiency of the international land-cum-sea transport systems which serve the landlocked In an era of large ships with efficient cargo operations resulting in very short stays in port, the delays caused by documentary â€Å"red tape† result in extra costs and time. To improve the situation, countries in the region having seaports (including those serving landlocked countries) are adopting the Convention on Facilitation of International Maritime Traffic, 1965 (FAL Convention) as amended. The objective of the FAL Convention is to simplify the procedures for the inward clearance of ships, cargoes, passengers and crew on arrival in a port.This can be achieved by the utilization of six standard declaration forms and the adoption of common standards for processing documentation. However, among the ESCAP members and associate members, only Australia, China, the Democra tic People's Republic of Korea, Hong Kong, Fiji, India, the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Marshall Islands, New Zealand, the Russian Federation, United States of America and Vanuatu are party (as of January 1997) to the FAL Convention. It is clear that there is potential to improve the efficiency of the land- cum-sea routes serving landlocked countries if all the coastal countries concerned accede to the FAL Convention.To assist the countries in the process of acceding to the Convention, ESCAP, in cooperation with the International Maritime Organization, ommenced in 1993 a four-year programme of country-level workshops and subregional seminars to promote the adoption of the FAL Convention and the implementation of its provisions. (d) Corridor studies To assist member countries in Asia, including landlocked countries, in the facilitation of cross-border traffic, ESCAP undertakes corridor studies to identify non- physical impediments to the flow of goods which cause delays and add unn ecessary costs to the transport process. One such study, for example, was completed in 1994 in the corridor Singapore – Malaysia – Thailand – the Lao People's Democratic Republic – Viet Nam. The study was extended in 1995 to cover Cambodia and in 1996 to include Myanmar.The study revealed the following impediments: restrictions on the movement of vehicles and drivers across borders; restrictions on the movement of cargo between the port and inland origin/destination without customs inspection in the port; restrictions on the movement of third country or transit cargo; limitations on the effective use of multimodal transport; and failure to make use of available technology and information to plan port and cargo-handling operations. The reports lso provided recommendations for dealing with these impediments. A study carried out by ADB on regional technical assistance to the Greater Mekong subregion for mitigation of non-physical barriers to cross-border mov ement of goods and people (completed in October 1996) should also be mentioned in this context.Similar studies are to be carried out as recommended by the Ministerial Conference on Infrastructure along the major intra-Asia and Asia-Europe land bridges, with the next ESCAP study planned for the corridor Port of Bandar Abbas (Islamic Republic of Iran) – landlocked countries of Central Asia – China. One other impediment frequently found in the landlocked countries in Asia is a lack of a proper coordinating mechanism at the national level among the ministries and agencies involved in cross-border procedures and formalities. 2. Improvement of transport logistics Multimodal transport, freight forwarding and electronic data interchange (ED') play an increasingly important role in the development of international trade. Just- in-time delivery, which is becoming a prerequisite for competitive international trade, increases the need for a highly efficient integrated system of de spatch, transport and