The Prince and the Discourses on Livy Essay - 2137 Words

Niccolo Machiavelli was at his time and continues to be now days one of the most influential and revolutionary authors known throughout the centuries. His writings, distinct from other renaissance authors of the epoch, make emphasis on his personal views and his opinions on the political matters taking place in Florence, Italy. Further discussed in the text are two of Machiavelli’s most renowned works, The Prince and the Discourses on Livy. Both books comprehend Machiavelli’s understandings of politics and explicit analysis on the various methods of governments with respect to principalities and republics. Machiavelli had many intentions in mind when he was first writing The Prince, among which where to understand, instruct and†¦show more content†¦He argues that it if the natural prince possesses such extreme sagacity, he will always maintain himself in the state unless deprived by a superior force. Nonetheless, if the natural prince has reasons enough to irritate his subjects and causes himself to be hated, people will willingly trade him for another ruler in the hopes that the new ruler will be better than the present one. Machiavelli says that once the prince is replaced, the state is no longer to be considered a hereditary principality but be classified as a mixed principality. As Machiavelli had at first noted, new and mixed principalities are indeed much more difficult to maintain. For it is in new and mixed principalities that difficulties start to present themselves. Machiavelli states that mutations to form mixed principalities, in which men change their rulers gladl y in the belief that they will better themselves by the change, arise from a natural difficulty. Unfortunately for the people, problems for Machiavelli do not stop here, for he argues that it is â€Å"an infinite number of other wrongs that follow in the train of new conquests.† When the new prince takes over another prince’s domain, he finds himself in a delicate situation with regard to the people who put him in power and with those whom he injured by seizing that principality. He explains that the new prince has â€Å"for enemies all those whom he has injured by seizing that principality; and at the same time heShow MoreRelatedThe Prince And Discourse On Livy900 Words   |  4 Pagesfamous works, The Prince and Discourse on Livy, Machiavelli meticulously discusses the importance of religion in the formation and maintaining a political order. Machiavelli regards religion as a political tool used by political elites for political purposes. He argues that the appeara nce of religion is good while the practice of it is harmful. One of the memorable passage from the Prince that supports Machiavelli’s claim is when he advices the prince to not to be good, and the prince should cultivateRead MorePolitical Philosophy in Machiavelli’s The Prince and Discourses on Livy 725 Words   |  3 PagesMachiavelli’s The Prince coming to mind. This is one of the most notable books ever written on the topic of politics and one of the most well known books to come from the Renaissance, but it is not the only book from this time period that focused on politics. Machiavelli also wrote Discourses on Livy, which gives a very different view of the political world and Francis Bacon wrote about the reign of Henry VII. Each of these manuscripts focuses on the different traits that a prince ought to have, theirRead MoreMachiavelli and the Use of Antiquity in The Prince and The Discourses1838 Words   |  7 Pages Machiavelli and the Use of Antiquity in The Prince and The Discourses The Renaissance was a time of classical revival and a turning point from the Middle Ages to the Early Modern period in the course of history. Ancient texts and artifacts became sources of inspiration for intellectuals and artists alike, and the desire to emulate—or even surpass the achievements of the past prompted them to study antiquities closely and saw them as models and guidance. People were consciously distinguishingRead MoreEssay on Machiavelli and the Roman Empire1489 Words   |  6 Pagesthemselvesquot; in common with those from the past (Discourses 6). This seems to follow the adage that those who do not learn from history are doomed to repeat it, yet for Machiavelli he seems more concerned with actually emulating history in order to repeat success than looking out for particular things to avoid. For this reason, he pulls examples from an eclectic range of histories in order to demonstrate how his principles in both The Prince and the Discourses on Livy, when fol lowed, will lead to a successfulRead MoreBiography of and Principles Taught By Niccolo Machiavelli Essay1047 Words   |  5 Pagestreatise The Prince, written in 1532, Machiavelli outlines several key traits of a successful princedom such as; how to incorporate newly acquired provinces, the most successful way to conquer territories, the establishment of successful defense and military forces, as well as qualities which would make for the most desirable prince. Machiavelli also brings to attention the pitfalls of previous Italian princes as to prevent the same mistakes from reoccurring. In The Discourses on Livy MachiavelliRead MoreMachiavelli’s Political Ideas and Influence1477 Words   |  6 PagesMachiavelli wrote The Prince, which explained his ideas and experiences from his time as an ambassador. The Prince was a how-to book on how to rule a country and how to conduct yourself as ruler. After Machiavelli wrote the Prince he became a chief political figure in the Medici . The Medici were a wealthy banking family that consolidated power in Florence. Machiavelli worked as a political advisor to the family until he died in 1527. Machiavelli’s discusses his ideas in The Prince. In the Prince MachiavelliRead MoreEssay about Virtà ¹ in Machiavelli’s Prince1520 Words   |  7 Pagesof modern political philosophy: The Prince. Given this image, it is incredibly ironic that the Italian word virtà ¹ and its derivatives appear no less than seventy-two times throughout the work. While the translator goes to great lengths to adapt this versatile word to the context of the situation, it is nevertheless clear that virtà ¹ is closely related to its English cognate virtue. This, along with the political nature of Machiavelli’s work, shapes the discourse about the nature of princedoms intoRead MoreAnalysis Of Niccolo Machiavelli s The Prince 1625 Words   |  7 Pageshistories. His more popular works included those call the Discourses on Li vy and The Prince-which will be described further more in this paper. Unlike fellow notable Renaissance men such as Leonardo de Vinci or Michelango, Machiavelli was not an artist but through his work The Prince, he has been made well-known across the western lands. This piece of work, for which Machiavelli is famous, or infamous for writing, explains in detail what a prince(name for the leader of a state) needs to do for successfulRead MoreEssay Commanding Lady Fortune: Machiavelli’s Theory of History1637 Words   |  7 PagesCommanding Lady Fortune: Machiavelli’s Theory of History Machiavelli opens his Discourses on Livy by declaring that what will follow will be entirely revolutionary—â€Å"a path yet untrodden by anyone†Ã¢â‚¬â€but then quickly backs down from such assertions, shifting his focus away from his own efforts to the modern views of the ancients, and leaving the nature of this revolutionary undertaking ambiguous (Discourses, 5) . Indeed, the purpose of the whole work is repeatedly skirted in the preface. MachiavelliRead More Machiavellian Folly in The Prince Essay1696 Words   |  7 PagesMachiavellian Folly in The Prince      Ã‚  Ã‚   In the annals of history, many individuals have contributed great works of literature, waxing philosophically on the meaning of life, death, and love.  Ã‚   Niccolo Machiavelli wrote not on love or life, but on power:   How to capture it, how to consolidate it, and how to defend it against all comers.   His work has been talked about and dissected to the extent that his subject matter and methods have earned their own moniker:   Machiavellian.   Nonetheless,

What Is The Single Most Critical Problem Facing Us Today

When I polled a few of my friends about â€Å"what is the single most critical problem facing us today?† I got a frequent response that’s not so shocking, climate change. So why climate change? Why not obesity, or population control, or education? While all of those are problems that deserve discussion, no single topic is so fundamental to us as humans as climate change. In 2007 Al Gore stated in his person of the year interview that â€Å"Today we re dumping 70 million tons of global-warming pollution into the environment, and tomorrow we will dump more, and there is no effective worldwide response. Until we start sharply reducing global-warming pollution, I will feel that I have failed.† (Walsh) Perhaps the paradigm has changed. Climate change is now talked about at every level of government, in large and small businesses, and communities across the globe. It’s a topic that functions to affect our economy and our environment. Moving forward, it’s important to understand why our way of life will be affected by the way we tackle these issues surrounding climate change. Climate change is the single most important issue affecting the human race today due to its widespread impact on our survival; impacting food sources, transportation, weather, geography and other life forms on the earth. In this paper I’ll prove why food sources, transportation, weather, geography, and other life forms are so integral in the climate change discussion. For example with increasingly irregularShow MoreRelatedDeviance : Deviance And Deviance1335 Words   |  6 Pagesusual or accepted standards, especially in social or sexual behavior. There are many different forms of deviance in today s society. Something that is viewed as being deviant in one culture might be seen as normal in another. There are many different types and theories in which define deviance, however their are 3 broad categories, these 3 categories are positivist, relativist, and critical conceptions of deviance. These 3 categories are important in defining deviance because they break down devianceRead MoreClassroom Environment : A Better Understanding Of Our Schools And Our Educational System Essay1489 Words   |  6 Pagescourse of this semester, we have touched on a variety of topics and themes that have allowe d me to begin to form a better understanding of the climate of our schools and our educational system today with respect to equity and diversity. Many of the core issues that teachers and students alike are currently facing are rooted outside of the school. As a pre-service teacher, I have truly begun to realize the large impact educators have on their students and school community. With passion being a drivingRead MoreEthical Issues in the Insurance Industry1326 Words   |  6 Pagesthey sold us was completely wrong for our needs and way over priced. Greed seems to play a role and being ignorant of the industry adds to the issues. Sometimes agents get incentives or â€Å"kick backs† for promoting or selling certain products. The products being offered may not even be needed by the consumer but just because it creates a bigger paycheck for the agent they pitch it to you and you buy it. In the following pages we will look at areas that have been identified as critical ethi cal issuesRead MoreImportance of Ethics in International Business1541 Words   |  7 PagesImportance of Ethics in International Business Executive Summary Ethics in the business world is important and global. Ethics  indicate what is right and what is wrong in  business branches and also lead employees and stakeholders with moral values. 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Audience Motivator: Every single day we are losing 137 plants, animal and insect species due to rainforest deforestation (Rainforest Facts). Landowners and governments of the rainforest today need to be given a good economic reason not to destroy the rainforest. We need to make an economy for the sustainable resources ofRead MoreNew Technologies And Policy Instruments1399 Words   |  6 Pagesof organisations today embrace a mechanistic, monocratic view of authority. Successful sustainability leaders have the ability to keep their organisation strong-minded on accomplishing its higher objectives while instantly handling several, occasionally changeable, streams of movement. According to (Cummings and Worley 2014), discussions about what needs to be done with new technologies and policy instruments to apply-have dominated the public dialogue on sustainability. Today s business environmentRead MoreScience Denial Endangers Progress1247 Words   |  5 Pagesstill occurs today. 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Our history connects us to who we are since we are immensely shaped by it. Groups that have had their oral histories destroyed (ex. First Nations

Affordable Care Act

Question: Write an essay onAffordable Care Act. Answer: The Affordable Care Act is the federal policy that facilitates the Americans with the security for better health by upholding the insurance reforms of comprehensive health that act to expand the coverage, makes the accountability to the insurance companies, more choices are guaranteed and the quality of care gets enhanced for the Americans. This act joins the two separate legislation pieces that conjugate the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act with the Healthcare and Education Reconciliation Act. These two acts come together for expanding the Medicaid coverage to the Americans who belong to the category of low-income groups. The act came into existence on March 23, 2010 and represented the regulatory overhaul that is most significant to the healthcare system of the US (Huesch, Ostbye Michener, 2016). The primary physicians and the hospitals would be able to transform their practices clinically, technologically and financially for improving their methods of accessibility and distribution, lower costs and better outcomes of health. It was enacted to enhance the affordability and quality of health insurance, expand the private and public insurance coverage and thereby lowering the uninsured rate and decrease the healthcare costs for the government and the individuals (HealthCare.gov). In the health insurance marketplace, the plans are exhibited in four different categories termed as Metals. The four metal categories include Platinum, Gold, Silver and Bronze. These metals are formulated based on the splitting of the healthcare costs of the respective plans and are not associated with the quality of care. For the Bronze plan the insurance company and the beneficiary share the care costs in the ratio 60%: 40%. In the Silver plan, the share is 70% : 30%, for Gold it is 80% : 20 % and for Platinum it is 90% : 10%. From the above splitting format, it can be said that the Platinum plan gives the maximum benefit to the beneficiary and the Bronze plan offers the minimum benefits. In the Bronze Plan, the beneficiary pays the 40% of their share of total cost in the form of deductibles, coinsurance and copayments and facilitates them with low monthly premiums (Blumenthal Collins, 2014). The silver plan is a bit expensive than the Bronze plan and comes with the subsidies of c ost sharing, that significantly reduces the coinsurance, copays and deductibles. While choosing the Gold plan, the beneficiary needs to pay higher premiums and the greater portion of the healthcare expenses are borne by the health insurer. Platinum plan the most expensive one with and for using the health insurance every time, the beneficiary needs to pay the cost sharing factors (HHS.gov). The Affordable Care Act aims to provide greater access to the coverage of healthcare, improve the service quality delivered and decrease the rate of spending on health. It helps the senior Americans in several ways that have been summarized below (Medicaid.gov). Lowering the cost of the prescription drugs Annual wellness visit and preventive services Lower premiums for Medicare Part B Improvements for the members of the Medicare Advantage plans Prevention of Medicare abuse, waste and fraud Improving the payment reforms and delivery system of Medicare Helping the senior Americans with various functionalities Evidence Based Nursing Practice Table 1: List of referred journals Sl. No. Title Authors 1. Oral care in nursing practice: A pragmatic representation Croyre et al. (2012) 2. Translating evidence into nursing practice: Oral hygiene for care dependent adults: Translating evidence into oral care practices Chan et al. (2011) 3. Oral care practices for orally intubated critically ill adults Feider, Mitchell Bridges (2010) 4. Oral hygiene care in the pediatric intensive care unit: practice recommendations Johnstone, Spence Koziol-McClain (2010) 5. Association between pneumonia and oral care in nursing home residents El-Solh (2011) The research work carried out by Chan et al. (2011) with the title Translating evidence into nursing practice: Oral hygiene for care dependent adults: Translating evidence into oral care practices as found to be the best article for the nursing intervention for oral care practice. The article aimed at translating the available evidence for improving the oral care practices. This is very important from the point of view of nursing intervention as it is very important for the nurses to translate the theoretical knowledge into practice without which, the treatment and care remain ineffective or incomplete. Oral hygiene is very much necessary for the maintaining the well-being and health of the hospitalized patients. From the previous studies, the authors noted that the nurses lacked the knowledge that is evidence based for delivering proper oral care. Therefore, the authors carried out an extensive survey of the nurses who are working in the high dependency or intensive care units and f ound that a protocol for oral care is necessary to bridge the gap between the knowledge and practice. Hence, the authors successfully heightened the knowledge and awareness of the nurses on oral care and helped to provide the best intervention for the oral health of the patients. The other four articles support the findings of the research articles in different methods. The study conducted by Croyre et al. (2012) with the title Oral care in nursing practice: A pragmatic representation was an exploration of the social representation of the oral care by the nurses along with the healthcare assistants engaged in palliative care. Feider, Mitchell Bridges (2010) carried out a research work on the title Oral care practices for orally intubated critically ill adults was a descriptive and cross-sectional study for describing the practices of oral care that are performed by the critical care nurses for the patients who are critically ill and are intubated. Johnstone, Spence Koziol-McClain (2010) conducted a research study titled Oral hygiene care in the pediatric intensive care unit: practice recommendations where fourteen articles were critically appraised for the development of a PICU guideline in oral hygiene. El-Solh (2011) performed a research work on the title Association between pneumonia and oral care in nursing home residents where a review of various articles were carried out to establish the fact that there is a need for the implementation of a program for using oral hygiene as a daily routine for the settings of long-term care.The article that developed the best research design was Oral hygiene care in the pediatric intensive care unit: practice recommendations that was authored by Johnstone, Spence Koziol-McClain (2010). In this article, fourteen articles have been identified to be relevant to the oral care for the pediatric patients in the Pediatric Intensive Care Unit or PICU. The research articles were critically appraised and a PICU guideline based oral hygiene was developed. The research successfully highlighted the relationship between the poor condition of oral hygiene in the ICU with an increase in the accumulation of the dental plaque, oropharyngeal bacterial colonization and increased rates of nosocomial infection that is associated with ventilator-based pneumonia. The research design included an extensive search of literature from the various academic databases like Medline, CINAHL, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews and The Cochrane Library. The Iowa Model was employed for gathering expert opinion, theories and case reports for permitting the protocols to be based on the best available evidence. The collected articles included randomized controlled trials, systematic reviews, comparative trial, non-randomized trials and expert opinions. Six different levels were used for rating the strength and quality Croyre et al. (2012) conducted a research study titled Oral care in nursing practice: A pragmatic representation that most clearly developed the purpose and problem statement of the study among the five referred journals. The problem statement of the study stated that the oral care for the patients who are receiving the palliative care that is non-specialist lacked in several aspects. Therefore, the authors explored the social representation of the oral care by the nurses along with the healthcare assistants providing the palliative care. The purpose of the study was to describe a training program on a large scale that intended to the modification of the shared attitudes in oral care. The social representation of the healthcare assistants and the nurses was to be shared in the study that is concerned with the oral care of the patients in a palliative care setting that is non-specialist. The practices, beliefs, ideas and values of the nurses are to be shared in the study to address th e problem statement and the study will enroll two groups for attaining the purpose of the study. The two groups are control and test groups that are aimed to evaluate the change in the practice and approach of oral care to solve the associated problem in palliative care. The research work carried out by El-Solh (2011) titled Association between pneumonia and oral care in nursing home residents had the best sample size for their research problem. Pneumonia happens to be leading death cause among the residents of nursing homes. Dentures and oral surface colonization with the respiratory pathogens and the dental plaque accumulation act as reservoirs for the recurrent problem of the infections of the lower respiratory tract. For highlighting this research problem, the author conducted a systematic review of several research articles where a large number of hospital residents served as the study sample from different settings. This large variety of the sample size gave a deeper understanding of the problem as the patients were from different demographics and was selected from different study designs. The sample size of this study with its extensive variety stated that the problem of recurrent pneumonia due to poor oral Feider, Mitchell Bridges (2010) carried out a research work titled Oral care practices for orally intubated critically ill adults that made the best and most accurate conclusion from the study findings. The objective of the study was to describe the practices of oral care performed by the nurses working in the critical care facilities for the patients who are critically ill and are orally intubated. These practices are compared with the recommendations for the oral care in the manual for The five reviewed journal articles directed at one common point of improving the oral health and hygiene of the patients with the nursing intervention procedures. CDC or Centers for Disease Control and Prevention aims at similar practices through its recommendations and guidelines for promotion of the oral health, being a national guideline. It lays down the guidelines for practices of infection control in the oral cavity and lays down the federal governments objectives for improved oral health. Both the research articles and the national guidelines are synchronous and aim at a better world with improved oral health and hygiene. References Affordable Care Act | Medicaid.gov. (2016).Medicaid.gov. Retrieved 10 June 2016, from https://www.medicaid.gov/affordablecareact/affordable-care-act.html Blumenthal, D., Collins, S. R. (2014). Health care coverage under the Affordable Care Acta progress report.New England Journal of Medicine,371(3), 275-281. Chan, E. Y., Lee, Y. K., Poh, T. H., Ng, I. H. L., Prabhakaran, L. (2011). Translating evidence into nursing practice: Oral hygiene for care dependent adults: Translating evidence into oral care practices.International Journal of Evidence-Based Healthcare,9(2), 172-183. Croyre, N., Belloir, M., Chantler, L., McEwan, L. (2012). Oral care in nursing practice: A pragmatic representation.International Journal of Palliative Nursing,18(9), 435-440. El-Solh, A. A. (2011). Association between pneumonia and oral care in nursing home residents.Lung,189(3), 173-180. Feider, L. L., Mitchell, P., Bridges, E. (2010). Oral care practices for orally intubated critically ill adults.American Journal of Critical Care,19(2), 175-183. Huesch, M., Ostbye, T., Michener, J. L. (2016). The Affordable Care Act, State Policies and Demand for Primary Care Physicians.CESR-Schaeffer Working Paper, (2016-010). Johnstone, L., Spence, D., Koziol-McClain, J. (2010). Oral hygiene care in the pediatric intensive care unit: practice recommendations.Pediatric nursing,36(2), 85. Read the Law. (2015).HHS.gov. Retrieved 10 June 2016, from https://www.hhs.gov/healthcare/about-the-law/read-the-law/ Understanding Marketplace health insurance categories. (2016).HealthCare.gov. Retrieved 10 June 2016, from https://www.healthcare.gov/choose-a-plan/plans-categories

Surrogate Motherhood Essay Example

Surrogate Motherhood Essay This research paper is based on collection of information on the use of surrogacy in acquiring children for infertile couples, emotional, ethical, legal commercial perspectives of surrogacy and the possibility of legalizing surrogate motherhood.   A survey conducted to identify the motivation, the attitudes and feelings of surrogate mothers to surrender the child at delivery to the commissioning couples has been incorporated.   The possibility of legalizing surrogate motherhood has been detailed in the form of recommendations.Infertile couples were initially subjected to two alternatives; child adoption or live without children.   Adoption of a child is associated with some complexities ranging from the long processes of screening, requirement for paying a fee, satisfaction   of legal procedures, scarcity for children for adoption and a long waiting for the child to be adopted since the application time.   Most of the children available for adoption are either disabled, of advanced age or of a different race.   The readily available children could only be found in developing countries, whose adoption is more of child trafficking than adoption, an illegal process.   The adopted child has no single genetic trait to the parents, thus a less parental bond exists (Bonnicksen Andrea, 56).The advance in technology has brought about a solution to these problems through surrogacy.   Surrogacy refers to a situation of the agreement involving a woman to conceive a pregnancy and give birth for a commissioning couple. A more traditional form of surrogacy involves artificial insemination of the eggs of the surrogate mother with the sperm of the commissioning father rendering the surrogate mother to be a genetic and gestation mother of the child.   Surrogacy can also be conducted through InVitro Fertilization (IVF) where the surrogate mother is implanted with an embryo of the commissioning couple, rendering the surrogate mother to be a gestational mother.   If the commissioning father suffers infertility, a donated sperm can be used in IVF with the spouses’ egg to form an embryo (Sher, Geoffrey, Marrige, Virginia, Stoes Jean, 82).The entire process involves a reproduction that is assisted where by the couple who are not in a position to get a child of their own, bears one who has a biological connection to them.   The parents become legitimate parents to the child while the difficulties of adoption and adopting a child from a different race are overruled.Emotional IssuesMost surrogate mothers are guided by empathy and desire to share their inherent gift of conception and birth with their infertile commission couples.   The empathy extends to ending stigmatization in infertile couples who are downgraded for their inability to bear children.   The surrogate mothers are never hurt by surrendering the child to their commissioners and they are comfortable to relinquish the rights of the child.   Due to the need for a chil d by the commissioning parents greater warmth to the child has been evident in higher levels as compared to mothers who have brought up their children in a natural way (Wood, Carl, Westmore Ann, 148).A potential surrogate mother has to posses some unique qualities.   The mother has to withstand the following: ‘insemination, pain, unpleasant side effects, depression, steep disturbances, guilt, difficult remaining unattached to the child, intrusive or a loof couples relinquishing etc.’ (O’Nell, 157).Ethical Issues: Proponents viewsCouples hindered from getting children by infertility have the option of surrogacy.   There should be no barriers to their arrangements with willing surrogate mothers assuming that nobody is harmed by the arrangements.   The enforcement of adequate legal provisions is the requirement to the protection of the rights of the child.   Children brought up from surrogacy experience much love from their parents while their surrogate mo thers achieve satisfaction due to their contribution to fulfill altruistic concerns of the desperate infertile women.   The commissioning couple opts to surrogacy in a bid to maintain their marriage (Pence Gregory, 146).Ethical Issues: Opponents viewsWhile the interests of the commissioning mothers the outright delivery of the child, the interests required by the surrogate mothers and the rights the child should enjoy remains at a balance.   The rights of the child would be in danger in a situation where either the surrogate or the commissioning mother bleaches the contract.   Multiple births can also occur against the expectations of the commissioning couples.   Miscarriages and delivery of a disabled child are possibilities. The child is not allowed to exercise own rights in the process (Pence Gregory, 147).Compensation issues also posses ethical questions. Surrogacy overrides the rights of the child and any future circumstances may be detrimental to the child.   Due t o the compensation of the surrogate mothers, the concept of child trading arises which is unethical.   The woman also rents her body part while the donated sperms are harvested through masturbation and cryopreservation thus further raising more ethical concerns   Ã‚  The extra embryos of IVF are either â€Å"disposed, unthawed, donated to other   infertile couples or used for genetic research† (Perloe, Mark, Christie,84),   further raising ethical concerns and justifications of surrogacy.   Ã‚  The unthawing and degeneration of the embryos is a matter of yet more ethical concern.   Ã‚  The use of excess embryo for scientific research raises another concern of ethical controversy, i.e. genetic cloning (Perloe, Mark, Christie, 84).Any conflict between the surrogate mother and the social parents of the child may lead to the temptations of the surrogate mother to abort.   The consequences of this act have detrimental effect on both parties as well as violation of the child’s right and an offence to the state.   In a case where the surrogate mother has other children, they are further subjected to a dilemma whereby, as they expect a sibling, their mother goes to hospital and mysteriously comes back home without a child, contrary to their expectations.The entire process is synonymous to a monetary exchange of gestational services facilitated by overseeing clinic which is no less than prostitution.   The surrogate mother rents temporally one of her parts of the body.   The contract also empowers the commissioning father to overrule through rights of the surrogate mother to the child (Perloe, Mark, Christie, 84)Legal IssuesTrade in human is against the basic rights of human beings and thus illegal.   Natural bonds between the mother and the child are developed during gestation which is the right of the child.   These rights are denied the child since surrogacy requires separation of the child from the biological mother.   The rights of the father are upheld at the expense of the rights of the mother.Commercialization of surrogacyA sense of exploitation of the surrogate mother is brought up by the issue of compensation.   The expected annual income of most surrogate mothers is ‘$ 25,000’ (O’Neill, 196)     Ã‚  while surrogacy compensations are up to ‘$10,000’ (O’Neill, 196)     thus highly cherished.   This figure project an hourly rate of ‘$1.33’ O’Neill, 193) which is to the lower extreme considering the responsibilities involved.â€Å"The combination of desperate infertile couples, low income surrogate mothers and surrogacy â€Å"brokers† with varying degrees of moral scruples raises the prospects that the entire commercial enterprise can be exploitative† (O Neil 194)A future legal surrogacy is projected involving poor women especially from developing countries acting in surrogate homes that resemble brothels.   Th is jeopardizes the child’s, egg or uterus rights and their involvement in immoral and unethical trade which degrades the women to the level of prostitution (O’Neill, 196).Survey: A survey conducted involved attitudes, feelings and the morale inherent in the surrogate mother to relinquish the rights of the child to the commissioning couples.   The results led to rejection of one group and acceptance of another based on the following attitudes.The Rejected group lacked energy resources and time to commit for surrogacy.   Gestation for somebody’s interest was uncomfortable and if it had to occur, compensation is the factor behind motivation.   Handling over the child was associated with reluctance and incase this occurred, future feelings of loss were recorded with the women interviewed.   The women who suffered past divorce, uncertain about their social economic identity or mourning a deceased were also disqualified for surrogacy.   Those with negative t rust and honest and suffering from depression instability and immaturity were also disqualified (Tilton, Nan and Todd, Moore Gaylen,73).The Accepted Group expressed the reverse of above qualities. Their qualification for surrogacy was in addition to a proven feeling of personal gains from surrogacy and appreciable emotional encounter.   The ability to accommodate frustrating episodes and ability to tolerate the demands required by the process was also taken as a factor for acceptable potential surrogate mothers.Those whose past pregnancies were successful with physical and emotional joy and consequent healthy relationship between them and children qualified for choice.   Those who proved to have homes that can offer sufficient support during gestation also qualified for surrogacy (Tilton, Nan and Todd, Moore Gaylen, 74).Legalizing surrogate motherhoodSurrogacy is by far a good way to be used by couples unable to have children as compared to adoption.   The child is more gene tically related to the parents making the parents to be legitimate to the child.   To legalize surrogacy, the ethical, commercial and legal issues related to the issue needs to be addressed.   This can be achieved through altruistic surrogacy with the issue of compensation arising only to cater for medical and social well being of the surrogate mother.   The Legalization of surrogacy would be healthy where the surrogate mothers are blood relatives of the commissioning couples which has less commercial sense.   In case of sperm donations the donor should be a relative to the commissioning father to maintain high genetic fatherhood (Markens, 197).The use of IVF remains of ethical concern since there will always be excess embryos after implantation.   Though they need to be maintained to be used incase of failure in implantation, the overall excess embryos raises challenges as to their destiny; disposal, unthawing and degeneration, donation or use in scientific research (Mark ens, 197).ConclusionFamily life includes the rearing of children for many people and to those who cannot bear children, surrogate motherhood is the only legitimate option at their disposal.   The legalization of surrogacy requires the positive addressed through solution of moral ethical issues related to surrogate mothers such as heartlessness to the child and the rejection of the surrogate mothers which can be overcome by making surrogate motherhood a family affair. Surrogate motherhood Essay Example Surrogate motherhood Essay Surrogate motherhood is a practice that has been used for a long time but has been evolving in lieu of the technological advancement that has recently been witnessed. Definition of a surrogate mother is one who carries a child through gestation on behalf of another woman. The reasons why this happens are varied and hence elicit different responses. Traditionally, surrogacy involved a man donating his sperm to a woman other than his wife in order for her to give birth to a child adopted by the childless couple. However, with time the term surrogate motherhood has evolved to involve many other practices (Franklin S. Dec.2006). The question is, does surrogate motherhood help the society or harm? As stated above, surrogate motherhood has been around for a long time but only the traditional methods were used to get a child. With the advances made in science concerning reproduction, there has evolved other ways of getting children through surrogacy. It consists of either artificial insemination, embryo adoption and donation, gestational surrogacy or the use of the ovum from the natural mother (Maule L. S. Schmid K. 2006). Each of these is different and as such use different methods to bring about conception and consequently birth of a child. We will write a custom essay sample on Surrogate motherhood specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Surrogate motherhood specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Surrogate motherhood specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In the early times, it would be used by childless couples but with the change in human sexuality it has come to include people who prefer to be homosexuals. They are now able to be parents of children who have their genes even if it is a family of two men or two women. Also with the rise of feminism, women who prefer not to get married are also using sperms from the sperm bank to get children. Initially one could only use the obvious method of sexual intercourse to get a woman pregnant but now there are sperm banks where men donate their sperms for commercial use. People in the world have different views concerning surrogate motherhood. Some are for it while others oppose it. Mostly it is for moral reasons that people oppose it but the legal aspect also sets in (McLachlan H. V. September 2008). Over time, there have been arguments for it in that it helps those who cannot be able to get a child of their own for different reasons. With the technology that is in place now, there are many ways to ensure that one gets a child and if they all fail then they can turn to surrogate motherhood. There are many people who view surrogacy as the ultimate gift from one woman to another. This is very common in New Zealand (Shaw R. 2008). When a woman cannot be able to get a child either due to lack of a womb or ovaries gets a gift from another one. This is seen as the greatest gift that one can give to another one. It is also viewed as a spiritual practice that enhances ones spirituality. In this way, a friend or relative can assist others get full satisfaction of having a family by providing them with the gift of life embodied in the child. There is opportunity for people to create kinship ties where there was no such hope. Kinship ties are very important to all individuals and hence to be greatly desired. Also, there seems to be a very special bond between grandparents and the children (Mander G. November 2007). When the children are unable to get children, the grandparents may be greatly affected and thus this comes as a solution. It is an opportunity for them to get a child who is genetically related to them instead of adopting a child who is not directly related to them (Hargreaves K. 2006). This is usually done through donor insemination and the resulting child is accepted by the entire family and thus a member.

Iagos First Soliloquy Essay Example

Iagos First Soliloquy Paper In my opinion Iago is a crude character with evil imbedded into his soul a typical villain in a Shakespearian play. The line put money in they purse shows Iago as his manipulative self. I believe his mind is fixed on causing hurt and destruction, fuelled by his jealousy over Othello and his wife. This view is outlined well by the critic Helen Gardener. Malice is motiveless. This view is shown well in operatic version of Othello, in which Iago states that vile is [his] my tissue, which just shows that Iago does this to Othello because he is evil, not through jealousy. In comparison to this the view of Neville Coghill is that Iago has been turned to this evil plot because of the actions of Othello. However I really dont think this is a feasible argument simply because, Iago continues with his evil plans after Cassio has been sacked and Othello tells Iago he can be his most trusted lieutenant so it is absurd to believe that Iago is simply plotting a revenge attack on Othello. This is therefore why Iagos evil actions are so shocking because he has no real motive. He is clearly jealous of Othello and believes he should be in a better position than he is because of the line, know my price. We will write a custom essay sample on Iagos First Soliloquy specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Iagos First Soliloquy specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Iagos First Soliloquy specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Shakespeare shows Iago at first to have strong feelings of jealousy and bitterness towards Othello. Lines such as his own pride and purposes shows how Shakespeare wants us to know how jealous Iago is of Othello, by using insults and sly comments. The reader therefore understands Iagos dominant emotions of anger and jealousy. Iago is a man who insults those who have done better than him often throughout the play, A Florentine; with the language used here Shakespeare is clearly conveying to the audience this feeling of jealousy, which is to set the whole story. There are many literary techniques used in the play to portray this evil image of Iago. In his first speech he uses words of absolute hatred when referring to Othello; he expresses his monstrous wish to abuse because he has this hate inside him. As he says framed to make women false, Iagos view of women is shown, also the way he uses Emilia to steal the handkerchief is devious and when he states that he will turn her [Desdemonas] virtue in pitch In Othellos speech in Act 5 Scene 2 it is clear that Iagos poison has influenced Othello and almost transformed Othello into a man like Iago. She was foul. Othello would never describe a woman like this but Iagos view of women has influenced him and therefore he is now thinking like Iago. His nature is shown through the pace at which he talks; he speaks in continuous prose which is fast paced, just like Iago. The irony over Cassio being a proper man shows the audience what a crude character he is and also goes some way to show how he treats people he doesnt like. The simile is as luscious as locusts I believe is a summary of Iago, he is a great person at first until you realise what he is made up of; evil, hatred and jealousy. Rhetorical questions are also used to create make Roderigo think, which undermines him and makes him look inadequate, making Iago look like the more dominant male. Drown thyself? This is a very strong line which later turns out to be reality, Iago is suggesting that he would never want Roderigo to harm himself, but in Act 5, scene 1 it is through Iagos vicious plans that Roderigo does get hurt, this is an example of a parallel in this play. An excellent example of Iagos viciousness is in The Nunn version of Othello, where Iago is overpowering and stands above everyone else, his tone of voice creates a dark and evil mood and the audience can see his viciousness through e mood felt. So this use of emotive language causes the audience to feel sympathetic towards Roderigo who is constantly being victimised throughout the play. Also literary techniques are used to try and persuade people too, such as the power of three. Put money in thy purse is repeated three times, stressing its importance, almost persuading the reader to believe him. This is also an example of dramatic irony as the audience know what kind of a man Iago is by him secretive motives, such as the line, monstrous birth to the worlds light. Suggesting he wants to complete his ideas and make them work. The shadow on Iago in Otello shows this evil living in Iago and this monster inside him is portrayed with the use of lighting. Similar to that of the sketch by Thomas Stothard The meeting of Othello and Desdemona, c. 799, where Iago was drawn as a dark sinister figure, with light on half of his face, once again an example of Iago being evil. If I were to stage Iagos first soliloquy he would be sat at a dark desk, starring at the ground, symbolising hell and have the lighting so that a dark shadow was formed across half of his face. I would have him dressed in his military uniform just to show the contrast between a true, genuine soldier such as Othello and Iago who is an evil, plotting man. There would be nothing else on stage to create an effect of isolationism, to show that no-one else is near this level of sinister thoughts. Iagos speech suggests two different things in my opinion; when he is talking to other people he is very manipulative and persuasive in getting what he wants. To do this he uses emotive language and rhetorical questions such as, Drown Thyself? This is a technique used to persuade and encourage a person to think and agree with you, which shows quite a sly manner. However when he is on his own he shows a deeply concentrating side, a person who is thinking about their deepest darkest thoughts. With words such as hell and monstrous and hate suggests very strong feelings of anger and in my opinion shows evil. These show how he is questioning himself and his motives, but he I believe is questioning himself to assure himself he is powerful enough to do such things. I would incorporate this into my interpretation; I would have Iago shaking though as he sits, suggesting that he has gone slightly mad with jealousy. Such as in the Miller version, where Iago was twitching and couldnt sit still this showed clearly the strength of his evil inner thoughts. I believe Burge tried to show the audience Iagos speech as a symbol of power. Burge shows Iago as overpowering as he has a very loud tone of voice, he is very persuasive. The camera angle used is close up on him carefully showing his facial expressions and his sly smile which is almost permanently on his face which shows the character of Iago exceptionally well. However there is this shift of behaviour between when he is on his own and when he is with others, because as soon as he is on his own, his movements become twitchier, almost like he doesnt like the depth at which he is thinking at. He argues with himself as well which suggests he doesnt like what he is doing, I havet this is him just justifying himself to himself! The close camera angle shows the real hatred in his eyes when he says, I hate the moor which really emphasises this idea of hatred and the balance of power. Finally there is a sense of dramatic irony because as the audience we know something is going to go wrong so by him thinking about his motives this is a sense of dramatic irony. Cassios a proper man This is ironic as the audience know what Iago thinks of Cassio, however he says this in a way that implies that it is going to be difficult to harm the reputation of Cassio, almost as if Cassio presents a problem. The strength of this interpretation is that it shows that real hatred that Iago possesses for Othello and with those facial expressions this is really implicit. But there is this sense of him becoming almost scarred of himself which I dont think can be believed as he is so definite in his plans and never doubts himself until the end where from this time forth I never will speak a word. Nunn shows Iago to be overpowering again by giving him a brawn voice. But when he is in his soliloquy he is fidgeting and breathing heavily, to add to this atmosphere how he sits at the table causes a shadow to fall over his face emphasises the idea of evil vs. reality. His true thoughts are so strong he is unable to sit still and this difference is shown clearly through the use of movement. This use of separation in the soliloquy is a dramatic technique to give the interpretation to the reader of the true motives of Iago and the way he thinks. This was very effectively done by the twitching during his soliloquy. This interpretation was very effective because of the power of his thoughts which I felt really added to the character of Iago. A Marxist critic may argue that as he cannot sit still his inner thoughts and emotions are being shown through is physical actions, which is clearly represented in Nunns version. In Act 2, scene 3 I would stage Iagos second speech with him standing centre stage, jus as if he was reading a scroll about what his plans were to an audience. The line I play the villain? I would have Iago looking directly at the audience to create tension an atmosphere within the audience. I would have Iago look up to the heavens, just as Othello does in the Nunn version when making his speech to the senators, when Iago says free and honest to emphasis the idea that Iago believes he is equal to a god. Then finally to emphasis the irony of Iago apparently being passionate for his cause I would have him shout to show he was plotting when he says Ill pour this pestilence into his ear and that shall enmesh them all. These will emphasis Iagos anger towards Othello and also show the audience his plans. In this speech it is the first time his plans involve others and are well thought out, which is why I would direct it in this way. In contrast to my view in Otello Iago is trapped in a fortress, possibly trapped in evil and he pulls on a bull ring on a door, this represents Othello being led like a bull. His low voice and shadows shows how evil this character is. There are signs of religion in this version, which were not present in the play because in Elizabethan times because religion was not allowed in theatre but now is. He is shown as a true creature of evil with traits of insanity. I think the weakness in this version is that Iago is too involved with religion and his belief in women, that being that women are a mans property and they can do what they wish with them, is not portrayed enough. Women in Othello are portrayed as fragmented notions of what they really are. Iagos false portrayal of Desdemona comes closest to crumbling when confronted by her plain truth Evelyn Gajowski In conclusion it is clear to say that Iago as a character influences other characters in the play and that his actions are repeated throughout the play. From what is written by Shakespeare many different interpretations can be taken which all lead to different meanings for the audience. Many different interpretations have evolved due to different contexts being intertwined through time. Iago in my opinion is an evil, plotting but influential man.

Homosexuality Same

Homosexuality Same Homosexuality: Same-sex Marriage and Homosexuality Essay Why so Differently? Being different colour, shape, gender, a different culture is like being gay; being different, but if we are allowed to be different colours, be any shape, be any gender, or even come from any different culture, then why are people not allowed being homosexual? James M. Barrie once said â€Å"As soon as you can say what you think and not what some other person has thought for you, you are on the way to being remarkable†. Being different is not very hard but accepting that you are, is challenging. Throughout the class we watched many different documentaries on marginalized voices and one of them was about marginalizing homosexuality because of religion. In my opinion homosexuality should not be marginalized because: Everyone has equal rights; they do not harm other people; and a lot of religions allow it. In 2004, Canada legalized same sex marriage. Where homosexuals were given rights to get married. We live in a world where an individual is allowed to free and do anything it wants, and by anything meaning anything that is legally allowed. If we, straight people are given rights to take part in marriage and be looked as a normal couple then why can’t a homosexual who loves another gay person be able to be together? Or even be respected as a normal couple? It is only because they are the same gender. When there is a black and white couple, society does not say anything or even when a mixed marriage is happening where the two cultures are different, still not a sound, but when it comes to a gay couple everyone starts talking. An individual is given the right to be gay, straight or whatever therefore people should not have anything to say or do towards that specific individual. When watching the documentary â€Å"Cure for Love† there was this one scene where Jon mentioned h ow he started cutting himself after coming back from the ex-gays and he came out as being gay. He said that he was doing that because of the pressure from his family and friends, how they would never speak to him if he was to continue being gay. Society says that homosexuals are not the right kind of people but it is not like we play our part and help them out, but yet get these kind of people into situations where they start committing suicide or just hurt themselves just like how Jon started doing only because â€Å"we† do not like the fact that the same sex couple want to be together. Instead we are the one harming them. Personal meaning you own. If a person wants to be gay that is not your problem. You have nothing to do with it. We as individuals are allowed to have the right to have an opinion but that should not have an effect on anyone but your own self. If a person wants to be gay let him/her be, there is no power that could stop them other than themselves. Going way back when there was no such thing as homosexuality to now where a lot are gay, the majority of the society seems to be accepting homosexuality more so the lesbian part of it. In one of our class discussions we talked about how nowadays people have nothing to say when it comes to lesbians but still do not like gays. In cure for love Jon, Brian, and Anna, the three struggled throughout the movie because they had to choose either they want religion or to be gay and be able to practise their religion. Brian and Anna chose to follow their religion and not be homosexuals but Jon found another way where he could follow his religion and be gay. Brian who is married to Anna, he seems really positive and happy as a straight married couple, but Anna, throughout the movie she looked depressing and disappointed almost as though she was forced to marry Brian and now she cannot do anything. Anna seemed like she wanted to be single, straight and practice her religion but for her to do that she had to marry Brian. Many religions around the world allow homosexuality and many do not. This is where it gets hard, let alone friends, family and everything else; I feel that when it comes to

SEE BELOW Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

SEE BELOW - Essay Example evolutionary proposition since many thinkers have proposed that we would be better as a society and improve ourselves as human beings if there were no gods. Clearly a lot of violence and bloodshed in human history has been the result of devoted faith and confirmed adherence to certain viewpoints (the crusades come to mind as a good example). Yet at the same time, religion and the idea of god is a comforting thought to many people and simply overthrowing that idea is not an easy task nor could be done at the earliest convenience. It seems that the overthrow demanded and recommended by the noted authority has little to do with the will of god since a person’s freewill is not controlled by god in any way. Had Zeus been able to control the will of Prometheus, he would not have any need to chain him or imprison him in any way. With a simple snap of his fingers Zeus could have discovered anything he wanted. This shows that a person can revolt against god and the power of god would not extend to controlling his or her freewill. Clearly, there is no reconciliation between the will of Prometheus and the commands given by Zeus. Zeus as the character of god can hurt Prometheus, put him in chains, persuade him, send him messengers but can not get him to bend to his will unwillingly. Eventually, Zeus can even throw Prometheus into the abyss with a lightning bolt, yet he remains unable to control him the way he wanted to. Finally, the character of Prometheus is quite interesting since he appears to be defying Zeus for no apparent reason. It seems that the defiance is simply for the sake of defiance for he has nothing (for himself) to gain or lose by giving up the information demanded by Zeus. At the same time, he helps Io by giving her some good news about her future. Strangely enough, he seems completely unconcerned about his own future and his safety. The defiance exhibited by Prometheus is quite heroic and one can agree with his description of Zeus as a tyrant. However,

Accounting Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Accounting - Case Study Example Case in point, the author ought to get 80% of the tender. Redone showcasing battles are essential for this situation to enhance productivity. More also, it is central for the author to be dynamic in advancements. To expand eminences, books ought not to be sold straight forwardly to retailers on a refundable basis. Furthermore, short rebates are vital so as to augment sovereignties. Specifically, an organization can be spoken to through a blend of three primary components: 2) administration exercises, That can be recognized in operational and vital. Functional activities are normally short term situated and concentrated on proficient use of accessible organization assets (e.g., gear, human good). Control costs. The point of interest of controlling costs is that for each money you spare by reducing a price, there will be an additional money in benefits, Reduce promoting expenses, Manage your stock, Develop a database, Seek add-on deals (McGee and Preobragenskaya 2). Nearby its current item run; that Slim Choice embrace a crisp and sound picture and be advanced in the media utilizing thin, vigorous and youthful models; Dont stretch out credit to moderate clients. Diminish credit terms. Enhance endeavors to gather obligations i.e. enlist a debt gathering office. Offer rebates to right on time

Leadership Theories, Methods, and Tols Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Leadership Theories, Methods, and Tols - Essay Example This requires that an employee has to work hard in the organization and create more hours especially in the evening or during weekends to improve his work rating and increase the chance of earning bonuses. Employee 1 has been working on weekends and late in the evening to ensure that work is accurate and complete. The manager of the organization encourages the employees to possibly work for more than 40 hours per week as they would receive a huge bonus and this reveal that the manager uses bonus as an incentive to motivate workers to upgrade the performance of the company. Power based on rewards entails equality without favoritism and thus employees work hard to achieve desirable results and thus raising performance for the company. In the second scenario, the base of power applied involves expert power. Expert power is based on the fact that knowledge is power, where a person who possesses special expertise in a certain field is regarded as important in the organization (Turner, 2010). Such people are extremely valued by the organization in problem solving and decision making processes. Employee 2 is a professional accountant in his organization and has negotiated four–day work week and he is the only worker who is allowed to compress working time in his department which reveals that his knowledge and expertise grants him power over other employees. The accounting manager agrees on his request as he is the only expert in accounting who can prepare the company’s financial statements. This fact shows that the employee is an expert and is granted his wishes unlike other employee because he can perform duties which no other person in the organization can perform. The opinions, ideas and decisions of experts in a company are highly regarded and they enjoy privileges than other employees due to their exceptional skills and expertise. A person may have ability to influence others using his personality traits or

Strategies for Employee Performance Management at MS

Strategies for Employee Performance Management at MS Study on how MS improve employee performance management through motivation and training? 1. Introduction One of the major issues for competitive advantage, therefore, is the successful motivation and training of staff. Despite a plethora of theories (Locke and Latham, 1990a; 288) which have analyzed work based motivation and satisfaction, however, theories remain commoner than the evidence to support them. In the increasing competitive environment, organizations have to focus on value of investments in human resources especially performance management as a major source of competitive advantage. Although, business strategy means of competition is common conversation in the executive suite, taking a strategic approach can be especially beneficial for staff functions within companies, as they often are required to justify their need for resources and their contribution to the company. The following study presents the analysis of performance management issues on Marks and Spencers (MS) employee motivation and training. Performance improvement provides MS with needed information on their employees. The information helps MS develop the skills of the employees based on the information collected at the appraisal, it helps recognize when training is needed. Performance improvement helps MS by improving their service by having able workers that work to their full ability and by improving the relationship between workers and the company. Here is Marks and Spencers definition of performance management: Performance management is a joint process that involves both the supervisor and the employee, who identify common goals, which are linked to the goals of the organization. This process results with the establishment of written performance exceptions later used as measures for feed back and performance evaluation. (MS Annual report and financial statements 2008) Marks and Spencer is a multinational company have grown from a penny bazaar in the late 1880’s. UK based company to become one of the largest and most well known organisations of British culture. As a leading retailer, with a customer base of 10 million per week in over 300 UK stores, also trades in 30 countries worldwide, producing a Group turnover in excess of 8 billion. (MS Annual report and financial statements, 2008) MS have to be able to manage its resources to meet the customer’s needs and those of the market. Following three years of declining profits due to economic recession, the company has attempted to rejuvenate itself. Though the company is regaining market share and profits are beginning to raise they are still suffering some problems which have resulted in the company selling some of their foreign subsidiaries and axing jobs to concentrate on their core business. Such a turn around exemplifies well the need for strategy in this type of organisation. Strategic issues will revolve around the long-term and concentrate on the direction and scope of the organisation. Furthermore they will concern resources, competition, meeting needs of stakeholders and markets. All of this will be in a constantly changing and dynamic environment and so organisations must concentrate their human recourse management especially employee’s performance management each level and use right strategy on HR policy. This paper is trying to find out that employee performance improvement by motivating and training. 2. Literature Review 2.1 Techniques of Performance Management A key issue in understanding and applying techniques of performance management is defining exactly what is meant by ‘performance’ and ‘performance management’. The paper hereafter discusses and evaluates the competing definitions as they are understood in organizational and human resources practice. Performance is a multi-level, multi-dimensional construct. It is important to understand what level of performance is considered important when an organization talks about performance management. At each level- organizational, work unit or individual; there are a combination of factors that influence performance: direct, indirect, individual and situational. Any human resource intervention designed to assist, enhance, encourage ‘performance management’ has to be effectively targeted at the right combination of factors (Study Guide 2004, pp.2-8). 2.2 Performance, a Definition Contemporary organizations consider performance to fall into two major areas: performance at the individual level and performance at the organizational level (Williams 2002). At the individual level there are differing views on what performance is. Some research regards it as simply the record of outcomes achieved (Bernadin 1995). Performance has also been defined as behavior, that is, the way in which teams and individuals get work done (Campbell 1990). At the individual level performance can be thought of as either ‘what’ is achieved, that is as output and results, or as ‘how’ it is achieved, that is demonstrated behaviors, competencies, adherence to process (Study Guide 2004, pp.2-6). Williams (2002, cited in Study Guide 2004, pp.2-7) starts with the proposition that individual performance is behavior, which is determined by factors of declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge and motivation. Declarative knowledge is the ‘what’ of performance; procedural knowledge is the ‘how’ to do’ whereas motivation refers to the exercise of choice over whether or not to perform; what level of effort to expend; and, whether or not to maintain a consistent level of effort on the specified tasks over an extended period. The three factors above are direct determinants of performance. There are also indirect determinants which might be termed ‘situational’ factors, first are those inherent in the individual employee, the second are those inherent in the work context, which might be termed ‘situational’ factors (Study Guide 2004). However, the most comprehensive view of performance is achieved if it is defined as embracing both behavior and outcomes (Armstrong Baron 1999). Performance at the individual level cannot be seen as merely a function of ‘ability’ and ‘motivation’. Issues such as individual differences, the context in which performance is expected, and the interactions between system and individuals should also be considered. Performance at the individual level is even more ‘multi-dimensional’ than performance at the organizational level (Study Guide 2004). The concept of performance as embracing productivity or efficiency as well as effectiveness, adaptability and responsiveness. It is clear, then, that organizational performance is far from being a simple concept (Williams 2002, p. 68). Somehow, at the organizational level we are concerned with issues of efficiency, effectiveness and productivity. To address the aforementioned multi-dimensions, we need meaningful performance measures. An increasingly popular approach to measure organizational performance has been through the use of the ‘Balanced Scorecard’ developed by Kaplan and Norton in 1996, which attempts to capture some of the contradictory nature of organizational performance (Williams 2002). It aims to measure performance in terms of four sets of indictors namely financial, customer, internal business process and learning and growth. The aforementioned four sets of indicators have each taking a different perspective. To succeed financially, how should we appear to our shareholders; to achieve our vision, how should we appear to our customers; to satisfy our shareholders and customers what internal business processes must we excel at and to achieve our vision, how will we sustain our ability to change and improve. It is important to remember that when studying performance management, we must consider both inputs – the behavior aspects and outputs the results aspects. Hartle (1995) calls this the ‘mixed model’ of performance management, reflecting the importance of both the ‘how and what’ of performance. This is when we consider that performance is about how things are done as well as what is done. Efficiency is defined by Robbins, Bergman, Stagg Coulter (2000, p. 8) as the relationship between inputs and outputs, the goal of which is to minimize resource costs whereas effectiveness is defined as the goal attainment. Efficiency is often as ‘doing things right’ – that is not wasting resources; effectiveness is often described as ‘doing the right thing’ – that is, those work activities that will help the organization reach its goals. Whereas efficiency is concerned with the means of getting things done, effectiveness is concerned with the ends. Performance and its relationship to productivity are of a vital importance in understanding and applying techniques of performance management. Guzzo (1988, p. 63 cited in Williams 2002, p. 52) claims that productivity may mean different things to different people, Pritchard (1995, p. 448 cited in Williams 2002, p. 52) has recently noted the wide range of meanings attaching to the term productivity: the term has been used to refer to individuals, groups, organizational units entire organizations, industries, and nations. It has been used as a synonym for output, efficiency, motivation, individual performance, organizational effectiveness, production, profitability, cost/effectiveness, competitiveness, and work quality. Productivity is the ratio of outputs to inputs, a ratio that reflects the efficiency with which resources are transformed into outputs (Guzzo 1988, cited in Williams 2002). And Williams 2002 refers productivity as a systems concept and that inputs are subject to some conversion processes which lead to the production of outputs; in seeking to measure productivity a basic question that is concerned is how well or how efficiently available inputs are converted into outputs. In a general sense, by inputs, it is meant all the resources, employees, raw materials, energy, buildings, equipment etc, that are required to manufacture a product or deliver a service. Output is typically taken to mean what an organization produces. Output has traditionally been measured in quantitative terms, however, there is also a quality aspect of output (Williams 2002). Viewing productivity as a system concept tells that inputs are converted into outputs via some transformation processes. Similarly, an organization, as a system, comprises many subsystems and it is these which are concerned directly or indirectly, with the transformation processes that convert inputs to outputs (Williams 2002, p. 57) 2.3 Performance Management, an Overview Performance management is defined by De Cieri Kramar (2002, p. 286) as the means through which managers ensure that employees’ activities and outputs are congruent with the organization’s goals. Performance management evolved out of a long history or managerial attempts to improve productivity, efficiency and effectiveness at all levels in an organization. Study Guide 2004 outlined that one of the difficulties with the concept performance management is that the term means different things to different people. One main interpretation that has come to dominate in practice is that performance management is a system for managing organizational performance; a system for managing employee performance and a system for integrating the management of organizational and individual performance (Williams 2002, p. 10). Walter (1995, p.10) states that performance management is about directing and supporting employees to work as effectively and efficiently as possible in line with the needs of the organization. Armstrong 1994 defined performance management as a process designed to improve organizational, team and individual performance whereas Armstrong Baron 1999 describes performance management as a strategic and integrated approach to deliver sustained success to organizations by improving the performance of the people who work in term and by developing the capabilities of teams and individual contributors. Performance management is far more than its precursor ‘performance appraisal’, it goes beyond the annual appraisals, ratings and interviews to incorporate employees’ goals, training, rewards and individual development. Thus, a performance management system focuses on an ongoing process of performance improvement, at the individual and organizational level, rather than emphasizing an annual performance review (DeSimone, Werner Harris 2002, cited in Study Guide 2004, p.1-3). There is no one right way of managing performance. The approach will depend on the context of the organization. That is, its culture, structure, technology and the type of people involved. Thus, recognizing the importance of managing within the context of the business. Organizational structure is defined as the degree of complexity, formalization and centralization crated to facilitate the coordination of activities and to control the actions of organizational members (Robbins, Waters-Marsh, Caccioppe Millett 2001, cited in Study Guide 2004, pp.1-12). Organizational culture is a more intangible aspect, based on the shared values, customs, rituals and norms of the organization. Culture, is long-lasting and can often take decades to change, it is very enigmatic and complex. Culture can assist performance management – they can also act as a major impediment. Conversely, performance management can be used as a tool to change culture (Study Guide 2004, pp.1-14). Williams 2002 raised, from one point of view technology is part of performance management, one of the tools, that is, for managing performance. And, indeed, technology, especially information technology, has been in many cases a solution to a performance problem which has led to that business gaining competitive advantage. 2.4 The Role of a Performance Management within an Organization From a human resource perspective it is very much a systemic process bringing together issues of: organizational performance; managerial effectiveness; individual performance; skill development; and reward management. These five aspects must be integrated through human resource personnel and managers working together with staff to achieve the organization’s desired outcomes (Williams 2002). The processes that are applied to reward and remunerate employee motivation are aligned with performance management. In the industrial era, performance and productivity came primarily from physical effort coupled with capital invested in technology. As enter the new era of information technology, the performance and productivity of employees comes not from physical effort but from within employees – their knowledge, insights information, skills, abilities, innovativeness and creativity (Smith 1998, p. 153 cited in Williams 2002, pp.1-16) For managerial effectiveness, on the one hand, the manager would know about the policy, objectives, mission and goal of organization. On the other hand, the product or service delivered has to meet customer needs for achieving its goal, having good relationship and trust between the company and customer, thus, be more competitive in the marketplace. Research is needed to best fulfill customers’ needs. A plan or strategy has to be implemented to improve the company and its stuff’s performance to be more successful. Performance should in line with the company’s business plan. Employees’ performance should cope with the company’s strategies and should also keep on improving. The focus of training and development programs and approaches in organizations is to achieve long-lasting behavioral changes which increase productivity at the individual, group and organizational level. As such, training and development comes under the ambit of performance management. As with other performance related aspects of the organization and its human resources, training and development is concerned with the identification of training needs. Based on a comparison of expected with actual performance, training interventions are designed, implemented and assessed to ascertain whether performance has been improved as a consequence of the training. Two of the significant performance management processes which assist the training and development cycle are job analysis and performance assessment. Job analysis provides valuable information on the tasks, job and role of the job and performance assessment assists in identifying where deficiencies in performance exist (Smith 1998, cite d in Study Guide 2004, pp.1-17) To unlock the intrinsic qualities of individual employees, not only does performance management address situational factors surrounding the employees, but it also seeks to address the motivational factors of employees. One approach to unlock these aptitudes and abilities is to consider compensation management as part and parcel of a performance management approach. Compensation management looks not only at extrinsic rewards, such as pay and bonuses, but also at those artifices, symbols, rewards and benefits which improve the motivation of employees to perform at higher levels. Suffice to point out that organizations which manage compensation and rewards poorly will fail to maximize their most important strategic resource – their human capital (DeSimone et al, 2002, p. 43, cited in Study Guide 2004 pp.1-17). It is because employees who achieve want to be recognized and rewarded for their efforts. And to motivate performance, outstanding performers must be identified and rewarde d accordingly (Stone 2002). 2.5. Employee Motivation theory and Performance According to Mitchell (1982) motivation is psychological process that cause encouragement, direction and insistence of voluntary actions that are goal oriented. Employee motivation is one of the key drivers of high performance as it encourages individuals to work hard, and desire to achieve a higher goal and a better performance. Robbins (1993) shares the same view, that motivation is the willingness to exercise high levels of effort towards organization goals and to satisfy individual needs. McKenna (2002, p.8) explains motivation as an emotion, ‘which is personal in nature, and comes from within the individual’. Robbins (1993) also describes that it is the individual needs that make the outcomes to be attractive and unsatisfied needs will create tension to stimulate drives within the individual and this is called motivation process. Please refer to Appendix 1 to see the phases of the motivational process. This study has been aimed to discuss different motivation theori es and how it effectively increases employee performance. There have been numerous motivation theories developed by many famous authors such as Chester Barnard, Max Webber, Joan Woodard, Bennis and Slater etc. According to Reis and Pena (2001), there was an evolution in the development of the motivation theories. Chester Barnard (1938) introduced the idea of traditional/classical form of motivation as â€Å"be tough† or â€Å"stick† and â€Å"be good† or â€Å"carrot† then followed with bureaucracy and human relation approach by Max Weber (1947) and Joan Woodard (1965) respectively. Then the turning point of the motivation history is in 1980s to 1990s was the â€Å"Total Quality Management† and â€Å"Reengineering† approach. Reis and Pena (2001) believe that today employee motivation is about satisfying your employees with empathy, understanding, friendship and respect at workplace. Please refer to Appendix 2 to view the evolution of motivation theories. According to McKenna (1999) the evolution of motivation theories have been breaking down and classifying generally into three categories. Ramlall (2004) also agrees that motivation should have three aspects of reinforcement, content and process theories. The reinforcement theory is based on the concept that reinforcement conditions behavior. Reinforcement is the attempt to develop or strengthen desirable behavior by either giving positive consequences or withholding negative consequences (Nelson Quick 1994). The theorists see behavior as environmentally caused. The reinforcement theory does not concentrate on the personal feelings of the individual, but rather what happens when the individual takes some action. What directs behaviors are reinforcements, when instantly followed by a response, increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated (Luthans Stajkovic, 1999). In the workplace, Nemerov (1993) emphasized that it is important for managers to recognize and reward employees. Such recognition also helps individuals to fulfill the higher needs in Maslow and Alderfers hierarchies, providing workers with self-esteem and a sense of accomplishment. According to Miner and Dachler (1973), content theories are primary emphasis on the particular motives or the types of motives. Berl and Williamson (1987) also describe content theories as understanding the key and driver which arouse or start behavior. Dainty (2002) and McKenna (1999) share a same concept of content theories; the two authors believe it is surrounding by four famous theories of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s Motivational-Hygiene, Alderfer’s existence relatedness and growth and McClelland’ needs theory. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs describes people have five classifications of needs which act as motivators; those are physiological needs, safety, social and belongingness, self esteem and self-actualization needs. According to Berl and Williamson (1987) the critical aspect of this theory is individual needs to satisfy lower level of need before moving upward. However, there have been many criticisms as Grigaliunas and Weiner (1974) argues that Maslow has been oversimplified and misrepresented. Wahba and Bridwell (1973) conducted a study which show that needs cannot be arranged in a hierarchy in every circumstance and hence feel that Maslow’s model is inappropriate. Herzberg theory has two factors called hygiene (physiological) and motivational (egocentric) also receive considerable criticism by Wahba and Bridwell (1976). Maslow and Herzberg share very similar concepts that individual must achieve basic needs in order to move upward. This theory was also never tested fairly and lack of supporting evidence that job satisfaction leads to high job performance (House and Wigdor 1976). The argument is that job satisfaction may lead people to their comfort zone and not actively look to risk their current rewards (House and Wigdor, 1976). Although there are criticisms, these theories are easily and widely used in practice by considering motivation as a systematic theory. Alderfer’s existence, relatedness and growth (ERG) theory assumes that if an individual can not satisfy the specific needs, then he/she can satisfy needs at a lower level, if the individual is frustrated at a given need level (Berl and Williamson, 1987). Maslow’s theory states that only one level of need can be motivational at a time while with Alderfer more than one level of need can influence a person to act at a given time. Berl, Williamson and Powell (1985), found through a survey that those who have satisfaction with growth needs have greater more desire for growth and individuals dissatisfied with existence needs had a greater desire for existence and related needs. Hence, this theory is useful for management to recognize a right person for the right task with realistic goal to motivate high performance. The relationship between these three theories is demonstrated in Appendix 3. McClelland argues that motivation could be learnt from life experiences and the needs are developed through life such as need for achievement, need for affiliation and the need for power. Acquired needs theory is also influenced by society and culture changing overtime (McKenna, 1999). Hence employees would be more motivated and perform better if managers know their goals and touch correctly to their needs. The process theories, according to Berl Williamson (1987) provide an explanation of procedures which enable people to choose among different courses of action, the degree of effort expended and persistence over time. The process theories include Equity theory, intrinsic motivation theory, and Expectancy theory. Process theories contrast sharply with the earlier content theories, which focused on identifying factors associated with motivation in a relatively static environment. Process theorists view work motivation from a dynamic perspective and look for causal relationships across time and events as they relate to human behavior in the workplace (Steers, Mowday and Shapiro 2004). The equity theory points towards the situations when individuals compare outcome-input ratio of their job to that of others (Robbins 2003). The people to whom individuals may compare themselves may belong inside or outside to the same organization as well as their own experiences in a different position within the same or another organization. This theory is strong when predicting absence and turnover behaviors and weak while predicting employee productivity. Equity theory points out that rewards significantly affect the level of motivation. McKenna (2005) argues that money and other rewards do not have a significant effect on motivation and it is other factors like better job satisfaction, positive feedbacks that do so. Locke and Latham (1990, p.241) state that expectancy theory developed by Vroom emphasizes that ‘performance is a multiplicative function of expectancy, instrumentality and valence’. It suggests that the factors that motivate a person to act in a certain way depend on ‘the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual’ (Robbins 2003, p.173). This theory is strong to explain employee productivity, absenteeism and turnover. Quick (1988) further explains a five step process towards the practical application of the expectancy theory – define the expectations, make the work valuable, make the work doable, give regular feedback, and reward employees when they meet expectations. The various motivational factors can be broadly grouped into intrinsic and extrinsic. The intrinsic factors include those are directly related to the work itself, like the enjoyment, responsibility and satisfaction of completing a task while extrinsic factors refer to those external factors like the recognition and rewards associated with the work (Amabile 1993). A study by Nowlin (1982) indicated that majority of the managers in both the private and public sectors were motivated by intrinsic factors like the work itself and the job responsibility. Based on a survey by Mullins, in which workers were induced to perform better in their jobs either by verbal recognition of good work or by a pay increase, it was found that performance was improved more significantly by the intrinsic reward of verbal recognition than by the extrinsic reward of additional money (Mullins 1996). Cully et al (1999) support this by evidence that regular performance appraisals and monitoring of individual quali ty do help to boost morale and improve workplace well-being. It is also seen that it is possible to achieve synergy between these two types of motivational factors by creating a synergy between the person and his work environment (Amabile 1993). Smith (2005) adds to this argument by stating that it is important for leaders to understand the reason behind the employee’s motivation, otherwise they may offer things that are not really valued. Di Cesare Sadri (2003) explains the dimensions of cultural impact on employee motivation, stating ‘while the principle of leadership, motivation, and decision making may be applicable almost everywhere, their success or failure depends heavily on ways in which managers adapt to the local culture and work situation’ (cited in Di Cesare Sadri 2003, p.30). Motivation is culture-bound, and managers must be careful not to impose their value system when drawing conclusions about what motivates people in different countries. Motivational differences are best understood by exploring countries individually, first by gaining an understanding of the culture and then by drawing implications from that culture about motivation. 2.6 Highlights of ways in which managers can motivate employee to improve productivity Understanding what motivated employees and how they were motivated was the focus of many research which have been undertaken in this field by Frederic Herzberg, Douglas McGregor, David McClelland, Abraham Maslow and Elton Mayo. Each of them has a different theory about employee motivation. Frederic Herzberg’s developed this motivation theory during investigation of 2000 accountant and engineers in the USA. Two Factor Theory. He beloved that people are influenced by two factors- motivation and hygiene. Satisfaction and psychological growth was a factor of motivation factors. The result of hygiene factor was dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors are needed to ensure an employee does not become dissatisfied. They not lead to higher levels of motivation, but without them there is dissatisfaction. The typical factors are working conditions, salary, Security Company, job. Motivation factors are needed to motivate an employee into higher performance. He suggests that offer work should be arranged in the following ways: job enlargement, job nation and enrichment. 2.6.1 Douglas McGregors theories called X and Y. McGregor said that there are two fundamental approaches to managing people. Many managers prefer theory x, and generally get poor results. Enlightened managers use theory y, which produces better performance and results, and allows people to develop and growth. â€Å"Authoritarian management† style Theory X The average person prefers to be directed. This person wants to avoid responsibility, is unambitious and wants security above all else. The average person does not like work and will avoid it. That is why most people must be forced with the threat of punishment to work towards organizational objectives. â€Å"Participative management† style -Theory Y People usually accept and often seek responsibility Effort in work is a natural People have self-control and self-direction in the pursuit of organizational objectives, without external control or the threat of punishment. Commitment to objectives is a function of rewards associated with their achievement. The capability to use a high degree of imagination and creativity in solving organizational problems is widely distributed in the population. McClelland based on the Murrays (1938) theory of personality. proposed a content theory of motivation. In his book (1961) The achieving society, McClelland said that human motivation comprises three dominant needs: the need for achievement , the need for power and the need for affiliation. Achievement People with a high need for achievement are trying to avoid both low-risk and high-risk situations. They avoid low-risk situations because the easily attained success is not a genuine achievement. In high-risk they can see the outcome as one of chance rather than ones own effort. High individuals prefer work that has ideally a 50% chance of success. Those people need regular feedback in order to monitor the progress of their achievements. They prefer either to work alone or with other people. Affiliation People with a high need for affiliation need to feel accepted by others and be in harmonious relationships with other people. Power Person who need for power can be personal or institutional. People who need personal power want to direct others, and this need is perceived as undesirable. Those who need institutional power –social power- want to organize the efforts of others to further the goals of the organization. 2.6.2 Elton Mayo Elton Mayo is known from his research including Hawthorne Studies and his books. He started his experiment on the effect light in produ

Refugee mother and her child by Chinua Achebe Essay

Explain what the poem is about and how the poet conveys the emotions he feels. The poem is about Achebe’s encounter with a mother and child in a refugee camp. This mother was different from the other mothers as she still cherished and loved her son. The other mothers had already stopped caring for their children as survival was not the most important thing and there wasn’t any hope of survival for their children anyway. In line 9: â€Å"Most mothers there had long ceased to care† The poet’s tone was varied, in the first stanza he used long, soft vowels such as the vowel ‘o’ and words such as ‘tenderness’. In line 4, Achebe chose to used the word ‘odour’ instead of the word ‘smell’ or ‘stench’ because it sounded softer and more rounded. The softness continued until the beginning of line 5 where Achebe used hard-sounding words such as ‘diarrhoea’ and ‘blown’. The fact that the child will die is hinted repeatedly. From line 7 to line 14 of the second stanza, he seemed to be admiring the mother’s love for her child in even those circumstances. At the end, his tone was sad and regretful. In the last three lines: â€Å"†¦ like putting flowers on a tiny grave. † There was alliteration in line 5 of the second stanza: â€Å"behind blown empty bellies† The poet used the work â€Å"ghost† as a metaphor in lines 8 and 9 of the second stanza. In â€Å"ghost smile†, he meant the softening of the mother’s expression as she looked at her son. There was repetition of â€Å"ghost† and in â€Å"ghost of a mother’s pride†, it represented what the mother used to feel and here there was only the tiniest left of it. The last 2 lines were a smilie, he’s saying that her combing her son’s hair is like a final goodbye because she would probably never get to do it again. In the first line, â€Å"Madonna and Child†, this is the scene when Christ was taken from the cross and placed on Mary’s knees. Achebe is saying that even this scene could not have been more touching than of the refugee mother and her child. In line 3: â€Å"for a son she soon would have to forget. † Here he means that after the boy dies, the mother will have to concentrate on survival for herself, forcing her to forget her son. This will not be able to mourn her child. In line 4: â€Å"The air was heavy with odours†¦ † The air was thick with the stench. The air was so dense that it seemed it had a weight and was more than just gas. In lines 7 and 8: â€Å"Struggling in laboured steps†¦ † Even walking is difficult for them. Walking is hard work. Achebe doesn’t know the mother’s name, so he refers to her as â€Å"she† and â€Å"her†. â€Å"Rust-coloured† is the colour of a dark-haired person’s hair when he or she has an inadequate diet. The hair signals that the child is incredibly unhealthy and on the verge of dying. In line 11: â€Å"†¦ hair left on his skull†¦ † The child is in such poor health that his hair has fallen out. Achebe used the work â€Å"skull† because it showed how poorly the boy was and because it represented death. In line 12: â€Å"- Singing in her eyes – † The hyphens surrounding this phrase outlined its significance. This was probably because the mother remembers singing to him, when they were happy. From line 15: â€Å"act of no consequence†¦ † Combing her son’s hair would usually be something a mother wouldn’t think twice about. They were probably quite well off before they were in this situation. The punctuation Achebe used were little. At the end of the first verse he put a period. This is because he was finalizing a statement. At the end of line 5 of the second stanza, there’s another period. This is because he’d finished describing about the surroundings and was moving onto the mother. In line 7, there was a semi-colon, which indicates a pause. There is another one in line 16. In line 13 there are three periods together. This is usually used to signify that something will eventually continue. At the end of the poem he put another period. This is because he is ending the poem and also because he is once again finalizing something. Since the child is dying, death is final, so the period was suitable. In lines 13 to 16, Achebe introduced the possibility that the mother and child were probably quite well off before they were in this situation. However, their lives had changed and it was no longer that comfortable lifestyle. I thought the poem was sad. It showed how disasters could change the feelings and lives of normal people like you and me. It was an eye-opening poem, and it made me realise that if I weren’t living this lifestyle that boy may well have been anyone I know or me.